Indian Art Form 

General Studies – I 

UPSC Mains 

Indian Paintings 

Mural Paintings

Mural paintings are artworks that are painted on the walls of caves and palaces in India. The exquisite frescoes painted on the caves of Ajanta and Ellora, as well as the Bagh caves and Sittanvasal, are the earliest evidence of murals. 

Mural Paintings – Historical Perspective 

  • From the 2nd century BC through the 8th – 10th century AD, Indian mural painting has a long and illustrious history. 
  • Murals from this time may be found in more than 20 locations around India, mostly natural caves and rock-cut chambers
  • Distinct time periods resulted in different mural painting techniques, which this page seeks to illustrate. 
  • Paintings of this type have been discovered in a number of locations around India. 
  • Ajanta, Armamalai Cave, Ravan Chhaya Rock Shelter, Bagh caverns, Sittanavasal caves, and Kailasanatha temple in Ellora are examples of the beauty and exquisiteness of mural paintings. 
  • The majority of the murals are found in natural caves or rock-cut chambers. 

Mural Paintings – Features 

  • Mural Paintings differ from all other forms of graphic art in several ways. 
  • Due to their sheer enormity, the Mural paintings are one-of-a-kind. 
  • They are too enormous to fit on paper and must be painted on the walls of large structures, such as caverns and temples. 
  • Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism are the major themes
  • Their organic relationship to architecture and broad public importance are two major qualities that distinguish them. 
  • The expressive practicality of Indian murals is abundant. 
  • The use of colour, design, and theme treatment in mural paintings has the potential to drastically alter the perception of the building’s spatial dimensions. 
  • Mural Paintings are the only kind of art that is really three-dimensional, as they alter and share space. 
  • Natural resources such as terracotta, chalk, red ochre, and yellow ochre mixed with animal fat were used to create the color pigments used in ancient Indian mural paintings. 
  • Human and animal figures, hunting, family scenes, court life, deities, and stories from the Buddhist ‘Jataka’ were among the subjects. The paintings were painted by ancient painters with skillful hands and keen eyes. 

Ajanta Cave Paintings 

  • Ajanta caves, one of the oldest remaining murals on the Indian subcontinent, were sculpted out of volcanic rocks in the 4th century AD. 
  • It is made up of 29 caves carved in the shape of a horseshoe. 
  • These caves are well-known for their stunning mural paintings, which were created during the rule of the Mauryan Empire and took four to five centuries to finish. 
  • The Sunga period is represented by the murals in caves 9 and 10, while the Gupta period is represented by the rest. 
  • The cave paintings in caverns 1 and 2 are the most recent of Ajanta’s caves. 
  • Murals and fresco paintings can be found on the cave walls (painted on wet plaster). They work in the tempera style, which involves the use of pigments. 
  • The paintings depict human ideals and social fabric, as well as period styles, clothes, and accessories. 
  • Hand gestures are used to express emotions. The paintings are distinguished by the fact that each female figure has a distinct hairstyle. 
  • Even animals and birds are depicted as having feelings. Themes in these paintings span from Jataka stories to Buddha’s life to complex flora and fauna decorative patterns. 
  • The caves’ walls are adorned with graceful human and animal positions. Vegetable and mineral dyes were used as the painting medium. 
  • Some important paintings: 
  • Scenes from the Jataka stories of the Buddha’s previous lives as a bodhisattva, the Gautama Buddha’s life, and so on. 
  • Cave No. 16 – The Dying Princess 
  • King Shibi gave his flesh to save the pigeon in the Shibi Jataka. 

Ajanta Cave Painting 

Ellora Cave Paintings 

  • The mural paintings in the Ellora caves may be seen in five caverns, with Kailasa temple being the most famous. 
  • There were two phases to these murals. The first phase of the paintings took place while the caverns were being carved, while the second phase took place millennia later. 
  • Vishnu and his spouse Lakshmi are carried into the sky by Garuda, the celestial bird, in older artwork. Later paintings feature a procession of Shaiva holy men in Gujrati style. 
  • All three religions (Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism) are represented in the artworks. 
  • Images of Goddess Lakshmi and Lord Vishnu are two of the most famous Ellora cave paintings. 
  • Images of Lord Shiva surrounded by his devotees and Apsaras are other examples of Ellora cave paintings. 

Ellora Cave Painting 

Sittanavasal Cave (Arivar Koil) Paintings 

  • These murals have a striking resemblance to paintings from Bagh and Ajanta. Not only is there artwork on the walls, but also the ceiling and pillars. 
  • The paintings are based on the Jain Samavasarana subject (Preaching hall). 
  • Some academics believe the caverns date from the Pallava period, when King Mahendravarman I excavated the temple, while others say they date from the 7th century when the Pandya ruler rebuilt the shrine. 
  • Vegetable and mineral colors are utilized as the painting medium, which is applied on a thin layer of wet lime plaster. Yellow, green, orange, blue, black, and white are prevalent colors. 
  • A pond with lotuses is the focal point of the paintings at Sittanavasal. Monks collect flowers in this pond, which also features ducks, swans, fish, and other creatures. This image depicts Samavasarana, an important Jain religious scene. 
  • After attaining realization, Tirthankaras delivered sermons in Samava-sarana, a particular, gorgeous audience hall (kevala-jnana). 
  • This spectacular scene drew bulls, elephants, apsaras, and gods into the audience hall. 

Sittanavasal Cave (Arivar Koil) Painting 

Bagh Cave Paintings 

  • Bagh caves in Madhya Pradesh are an extension of the Ajanta school, and their excellent work is comparable to that of the Ajanta caves in terms of design, execution, and ornamentation. 
  • The figures are more neatly modeled, have a sharper contour, and are more terrestrial and human in appearance. 
  • Rang Mahal, Cave No. 4, features exquisite murals on the walls illustrating Buddhist and Jataka tales, similar to those found in Ajanta. 
  • These paintings, however sparse and deteriorated now, reflect religious topics in the context of current people’s lifestyles, making them more secular. 

Bagh Cave Painting 

Armamalai Cave Paintings 

  • These natural caves, located in the Vellore area of Tamil Nadu, were turned into a Jain temple in the 8th century. 
  • Within the cave, there are unbaked mud buildings that served as a resting spot for Jain saints. 
  • The tales of Astathik Palakas (deities defending eight corners) and Jainism are shown in stunning colorful murals on the walls and roof. 

Armamalai Cave Painting 

Ravan Chhaya Rock Shelter 

  • These ancient fresco paintings on a rock shelter in the Keonjhar district of Odisha are in the shape of a half-opened umbrella. 
  • This shelter is thought to have served as a royal hunting lodge. The painting depicting a royal procession, which dates from the 7th century, is the most remarkable. 
  • The relics of Chola era paintings from the eleventh century are also significant. 

Ravan Chhaya Rock Shelter Painting 

Lepakshi Paintings 

  • These mural paintings were painted on the Veerabhadra temple walls at Lepakshi in the 16th century and are located in the Anantapur region of Andhra Pradesh. 
  • They were created during the Vijayanagara period and have a religious theme centered on the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Vishnu’s incarnations. Primary colors, particularly blue, are conspicuously absent from the paintings. 
  • They illustrate a deterioration in the quality of the painting. Black is used to outlining the forms, figures, and details of their costumes. 

Lepakshi Paintings 

Jogimara Cave Paintings 

  • It is an artificially created cave in Chattisgarh’s Surguja district. It dates from roughly 1000-300 BC and contains a few paintings and inscriptions in Brahmi script depicting a love story. 
  • The cave is said to be an addition to the amphitheater, and it was decorated with paintings. Paintings include dancing couples as well as creatures such as elephants and fish. 
  • A strong red outline can be seen in the paintings. White, yellow, and black are among the other colors employed. Sitabenga’s rock-cut theatre is also close by. 

Jogimara Cave Paintings 

Badami Murals 

  • A later mural tradition is exemplified here. 
  • The western Chalukyan dynasty’s capital was Badami. 
  • From 543 until 598 CE, this dynasty governed the region. 
  • The Badami caves were excavated under the patronage of Chalukya king Mangalesha. 
  • Mangalesha was Pulakesi I’ s younger son and Kirtivarman I’s brother. 
  • Because of the devotion of the picture of Vishnu, Cave No. 4 is also known as the Vishnu Cave. Here, the years 578–579 CE are referenced. As a result, we know the period when the cave was carved as well as the patron’s Vaishnava leanings. 
  • Palace scenes are shown in paintings. Kirtivarman is seen in a painting seated in the palace, enjoying a dance scene with his wife and feudatories. 
  • The paintings are a continuation of the mural painting tradition in south India, which stretches from Ajanta to Badami. 
  • The king and queen’s faces are reminiscent of the Ajanta modeling, with wide eye sockets, half-closed eyes, and protruding lips. 
  • By contouring different regions of the face to create projecting structures of the face itself, these artists of the 6th century CE were able to generate volume. 

Badami Murals 

Murals under Pallavas 

  • In Tamil Nadu, the Pallavas succeeded the Chalukyas further south
  • They were generous arts patrons. 
  • Many temples were built by Mahendravarman I (7th century) in Panamalai, Mandagapattu, and Kanchipuram. 
  • King Mahendravarman I is given various titles in an inscription at Mandagapattu, including Vichitra Chitta (curious-minded), Chattakari (temple-builder), and Chitrakar Puli (tiger among artists), indicating his interest in artistic pursuits. 
  • Rajasimha, the Pallava ruler, was a patron of the paintings at Kanchipuram’s temple. 
  • Only fragments of a painting of Somaskanda survive – a huge, round face. 
  • In comparison to the previous phase, this one has more decoration. However, the torso is depicted similarly, but lightly enlarged. 

Murals under Pandyas 

  • The Pandyas were also patrons of the arts. 
  • Thirumalapuram caverns and Sittanavasal Jaina caves are two examples. 
  • Paintings can be found on the shrine’s ceilings, verandas, and brackets. 
  • There are dancing celestial nymphs to be seen. 
  • The bodies are colored yellow and the contours are vermillion red. 
  • Dancers have expressive faces and limbs that are supple. Their eyes are elongated and protrude from their faces at times. This is a distinguishing element in many later Deccan and South Indian paintings. 

Murals under Cholas 

  • From the 9th through the 13th century CE, the Cholas dominated the region. 
  • In the 11th century CE, the Cholas were at the height of their dominance, and this is when their masterpieces appeared. 
  • Brihadeswara Temple at Thanjavur, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, and Darasuram were all erected under the reign of Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola. 
  • Narthamalai is home to Chola paintings. The Brihadeswara Temple houses the most important paintings. 
  • There were two layers of paint visible. During the Nayaka period, the upper layer was completed (16th century). 
  • Narratives and many manifestations of Lord Shiva are depicted in the Chola paintings (original layer), including Shiva in Kailash, Shiva as Nataraja, and Shiva as Tripurantaka. 
  • There is also a painting of Rajaraja, his tutor Kuruvar, and other items. 

Vijayanagara Murals 

  • Following the Chola fall, the Vijayanagara Dynasty conquered the region from Hampi to Trichy. 
  • The capital was Hampi. 
  • The paintings at Thiruparankundram, near Trichy, are from the 14th century and depict the Vijayanagara style in its early stages. 
  • The Mandapa’s ceilings are covered in paintings. 
  • Events from dynastic history as well as the Mahabharata and Ramayana are depicted. 
  • Paintings depicting Vidyaranya, Bukkaraya Harsha’s spiritual teacher, being carried in a palanquin in a parade; Vishnu incarnations. 
  • Profiles of people and objects are shown. Frontal eyes are large, and waists are slender. 
  • Paintings on the walls of the Shiva Temple in Lepakshi, Andhra Pradesh. 
  • Vijayanagara paintings have lines that are still but flexible. 
  • Faces are viewed from the side. 

Naayaka Murals 

  • Vijayanagara styles have been extended. 
  • Thiruparankundram, Srirangam, and Tiruvarur are among the places where you can see them. 
  • Episodes from the Mahabharata, Ramayana, and Krishna Leela are shown in Nayaka paintings. 
  • Paintings between the 14th and 17th centuries can be found in Thiruparankundram. 
  • Scenes from Mahavira’s life are depicted in 14th-century paintings. 
  • There is a panel in Tiruvarur that tells the story of Muchukunda. 
  • The Ramayana is told in 60 panels in Sri Krishna Temple at Chengam, Arcot. 
  • Male figures are depicted as having thin waists and lighter abdomens. 
  • Nataraja’s painting at Thiruvalanjuli is an excellent example of Nayaka art. 

Kerala Murals 

  • In this style, many aspects of the Nayaka and Vijayanagara styles were included. 
  • The artists drew inspiration from current Kathakali and Kalam Ezhuthu traditions. 
  • Human beings have been rendered in three dimensions using vibrant and vivid colors. 
  • Paintings on the walls of shrines, temple cloister walls, and palace walls. 
  • The paintings’ subject matter ranges from common Hindu mythology to localized interpretations of the Mahabharata and Ramayana, as well as oral tales. 
  • Three palaces where these mural paintings are present are – the Dutch Palace in Kochi, the Krishnapuram Palace in Kayamkulam, and the Padmanabhapuram Palace in Padmanabhapuram (Travancore, now in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu). 
  • Panayannarkavu (temple) in Pundareekapuram, Thrikodithanam Sri Rama temple in Thrikodithanam, Vadakkunnathan temple in Thrissur are other examples. 

Conclusion 

From the 2nd century BC through the 8th – 10th century AD, Indian murals have a long and illustrious history. Murals from this period have been discovered in more than 20 locations around India, mostly natural caves and rock-cut chambers. The caverns of Ajanta, Bagh, Sittanavasal, Armamalai Cave (Tamil Nadu), RavanChhaya rock shelter, and Kailasanatha temple in Ellora Caves are among the greatest achievements of this period. 

Miniature Paintings

Miniature paintings are fine-looking, handcrafted works of art. These paintings are bright and colourful, but they are small. The elaborate and delicate brushwork that gives these paintings their individual identity is their best feature. Colors for miniatures are made by hand. Pure gold, silver, minerals, plants, valuable stones, indigo, and conch shells are the most common sources. 

Miniature Paintings in India – Historical Background 

  • The word ‘miniature’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Minimum’, which means red lead paint. 
  • This paint was used in illuminated manuscripts during the Renaissance period. It is generally confused with the word minimum, which would mean that they were small in size. 
  • The Indian subcontinent has long traditions of these miniature paintings and many schools have developed that have differences in composition and perspective. Miniatures are small and detailed paintings. 
  • The development of Indian miniature paintings began around the 17th century in the Western Himalayas
  • Mural paintings from the second half of the 18th century had a big influence on these works. 
  • The Hindu Rajas of Rajasthan and Muslim kings of the Deccan and Malwa sponsored the growth of miniature painting throughout the Mughal era. 
  • Persian tradition was brought into Indian miniature paintings by the Mughals. 

Miniature Painting 

Miniature Paintings in India – Features 

  • Miniatures are handcrafted paintings with a nice appearance. These paintings are vibrant, although they are little. 
  • The complicated and delicate brushwork that gives these paintings their individual identity is the best feature of them. 
  • Miniatures are painted using hand-mixed colors. Pure gold, silver, minerals, plants, valuable stones, indigo, and conch shells are the most common sources. 
  • There are various prerequisites that must be met in order to create miniature paintings. 
  • The painting should be no more than 25 square inches in size. 
  • The painting’s subject should be portrayed at a scale of no more than 1/6th of its actual size. 
  • The human figurine is depicted with a side profile in the majority of Indian miniature paintings. 
  • Bulging eyes, a sharp nose, and a thin waist are common features. 
  • The skin color of the characters in Rajasthani miniatures is dark, but they are often paler in Mughal paintings. 
  • Furthermore, celestial entities such as Lord Krishna are blue in color. 
  • The female figurines have long hair, and their eyes and hair are almost always black. 
  • Men typically dress in traditional attire and wear turban on their heads. 

Early Miniature 

  • They were frequently painted on perishable materials like paper, palm leaves, and fabric for books or albums. 
  • The art of miniature painting emerged between the 8th and 12th centuries, virtually as a reaction to the massive wall paintings. 
  • This style of painting can be seen in both the eastern and western parts of the country. 
  • There are two well-known schools. 
  • Pala School of Art 
  • Apabhramsa School of Art 

Pala School of Art 

  • During the years 750-1150 AD, this school was thriving. 
  • These paintings were usually done on palm leaf or vellum paper and were found as part of manuscripts. 
  • They were largely utilized by Buddhist monks, and because their faith preaches nonviolence toward all living beings, only banana or coconut tree leaves were allowed. 
  • The background imagery is characterized by sinuous lines and subtle tones in these paintings. 
  • There are a lot of lonely single characters in the paintings, and group paintings are uncommon. 
  • They were patronized by several of kings who encouraged Buddhism because of their simple compositions. 
  • These paintings were also used and patronized by followers of the Vajrayana school of Buddhism. 

Pala School of Art 

Apabhramsa School of Art 

  • This school can be traced back to Gujarat and the Mewar region of Rajasthan. 
  • During the 11th to 15th centuries, it was the most popular painting style in western India. 
  • The Jain religion was the most prominent motif in these paintings, and the Vaishnava School adopted it afterward. 
  • They included the concept of Gita Govinda and secular love in these artworks, which had previously been dominated by Jain imagery. 
  • The paintings were done on a palm leaf in the early Jain period, but on paper in the later time. 
  • Despite the fact that the paintings were created as book illustrations, they did not have a distinct style; rather, they were mural paintings at a smaller scale. 
  • The colors employed in the paintings were mainly red, yellow, and ochre and they had symbolic value. They employed bright and gold colors in the final stages. 

Apabhramsa School of Art 

Miniature Paintings – Deccan 

  • The colors were applied flat, with the garment and human figures being delineated in black. 
  • The faces are viewed from a three-quarter angle, giving them a detached look. 
  • The landscapes are filled with trees, rocks, and other designs that do not attempt to mimic the subject’s natural aspect. 

Miniature Paintings – Delhi sultanate 

  • These paintings attempted to combine Persian motifs from their ancestors with Indian traditional components. 
  • They preferred pictorial manuscripts, and the Nimatnama (a book) written under the reign of Nasir Shah, who ruled over Mandu, is one of the best examples from this period. This book exemplifies the blending of indigenous and Persian styles. 
  • Apart from that, a style known as the Lodi Khuladar was popular at this time and was practiced in many of the Sultanate-controlled districts between Delhi and Jaunpur. 

Miniature Painting during Delhi Sultanate 

Miniature Paintings – Mughal Era 

  • Since they were influenced by Persian antecedents, Mughal paintings have a distinctive style. 
  • The color palette, motifs, and forms all changed. The emphasis changed away from representing the god and toward glorifying and showing the ruler’s life. 
  • They concentrated on paintings depicting hunting scenes, historical events, and other court-related subjects
  • The Mughal paintings combined the realistic style of Persia with the grandeur of a vast empire to produce some stunningly illustrated folios. 
  • Due to the obvious bright colors used in these paintings, they have been deemed one-of-a-kind. 
  • The painters were meant to focus on making sure the line drawings were accurate. 
  • The Mughals were noted for their wide topics, which included religious art. 
  • Despite the fact that they only created miniature paintings, the illustrations in paintings are thought to be among the most distinctive in the world. 

Miniature Painting during Mughal Era 

Early Mughal Painters 

  • After a series of wars, Babur established the Mughal dynasty. 
  • He didn’t have much time to commission paintings, but he is said to have commissioned some illustrations of the Mughal family tree from a Persian artist named Bihzad
  • Humayun, a great patron of the arts, ascended to the throne at a young age. He enjoyed painting and constructing beautiful monuments, but his atelier was disrupted when he lost the throne to Sher Shah Suri and was exiled to Persia. 
  • While at Shah Abbas’ court in Persia, he hired two major painters, Abdus Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali, who stayed with him after he reclaimed his throne and established the Mughal dynasty in India. 
  • These artists were responsible for introducing Persian influences into Mughal paintings and produced a number of successful illustrated albums. 
  • They created an illustrated manuscript called Tutinama during Akbar’s reign. 

Akbar 

  • Akbar was in charge of creating an entire department dedicated to painting and scribbling his paperwork. 
  • He founded Tasvir Khana, a professional artistic studio where artists were engaged on pay and developed their own styles. 
  • Akbar regarded painting as a means of both study and recreation. He believed that a painting could convey a subject’s demeanor and regularly awarded painters who created lifelike images. 
  • The use of three-dimensional figures and the continued use of foreshortening are distinguishing features of Akbar’s paintings. 
  • The artists also encouraged the use of calligraphy in their paintings. 
  • One of the distinguishing features of this period was the transformation of popular art to court art, in which the artist was more concerned with depicting scenes of court life rather than scenes of popular life. 
  • Daswant, Basawan, and Kesu are some of the most well-known painters of this era. 
  • During Akbar’s reign, notably illustrated manuscripts include Tutinama, Hamzanama, Anvar-i-Suhaili, and Gulistan of Sadi. 

Tutinama 

Jahangir 

  • During the reign of Jahangir, Mughal paintings achieved their pinnacle. 
  • By nature, he was a naturalist who loved paintings of flora and fauna, such as birds, animals, trees, and flowers. He emphasized the importance of incorporating naturalism into portrait painting. 
  • One of the distinctive trends that emerged during this time period was the use of decorated margins around paintings that were sometimes as elaborate as the paintings themselves. 
  • Jahangir was regarded as a talented artist, and he maintained his own private workshop, though no major works by him have survived. 
  • His atelier primarily produced miniature paintings, the most famous of which were naturalistic paintings of the zebra, turkey, and cock. 
  • Ustad Mansoor, a master of drawing the features of the most complex faces, was one of his era’s most famous artists. 
  • During his reign, an animal fable called Ayar-i-Danish (Touchstone of Knowledge) was illustrated. 

Zebra Painting by Jahangir 

Shah Jahan 

  • During Shah Jahan’s reign, the tone of Mughal art shifted dramatically. 
  • In contrast to his father and grandfather, who preferred naturalistic images, Shah Jahan preferred to use artificial elements in his paintings. 
  • According to legend, he attempted to diminish the vitality of the paintings and introduce unnatural stillness as a result of European influence. 
  • He changed the drawing and painting techniques from the previous period. He discouraged the use of charcoal in drawing and instead encouraged the artists to draw and sketch with a pencil. 
  • He also directed that more gold and silver be used in the paintings. 
  • In addition, he preferred brighter color palettes than his predecessors. 
  • As a result, we can say that the Mughal atelier expanded during his reign but changed significantly in style and technique. 

Miniature Paintings – Rajput style 

  • The 17th and 18th centuries were the most significant periods. 
  • Based on mural and fresco forms at first. The tiny painting style gained popularity in the later century. 
  • It is usually religious or devotional in nature. 
  • It typically employs Hindu symbols such as the lotus, peacock, and swan. 

Miniature Paintings – South India 

  • The practice of creating miniature paintings was already well-established in the South Indian states throughout the early medieval period
  • Because of the climate, these schools differed from those in northern India. 
  • These paintings have a lot of gold in them. They also focussed their efforts. 
  • Much more time is spent drawing celestial creatures than it is spent painting rulers. 
  • The following are some of the most well-known schools: 
  • Tanjore painting 
  • Mysore painting 

Tanjore Painting 

  • The Thanjavur or Tanjore School is known for its unique decorative painting style. During the 18th century, they were patronised by the Maratha rulers. 
  • These paintings are distinct in that they are primarily made of glass and board rather than the traditional cloth and vellum used in north India. Due to the bright colour patterns and abundant use of gold leaf, they are one-of-a-kind. 
  • To create larger-than-life images, they employed a variety of gemstones and cut glasses as ornaments. 
  • The majority of the paintings showed Krishna smiling in various stances and highlighted numerous significant events in his life. 
  • Under the patronage of Sarfoji Maharaj, a prominent patron of the arts, these paintings attained their pinnacle. 

Tanjore Painting 

Mysore Painting 

  • The rulers of Mysore province were patrons of these paintings, which lasted under the British period as well. The representation of Hindu gods and goddesses is a key motif in the Mysore paintings. 
  • The unusual aspect of these paintings is that each one contains two or more people, one of which is larger and more colorful than the others. 
  • Furthermore, the technique used to create these paintings differs significantly from that used in north Indian styles. 
  • They employ ‘gesso paste,’ which is zinc oxide and Arabic gum mixture. This provides the painting with a distinct foundation that produces a gloss over the backdrop. 

Mysore Painting 

Conclusion 

Miniature paintings are fine-looking, handcrafted works of art. These paintings are bright and vivid, but they are little. The elaborate and delicate brushwork that gives these paintings their individual identity is their best feature. Colors for miniatures are made by hand. Pure gold, silver, minerals, plants, valuable stones, indigo, and conch shells are the most common sources. The Ragas are a significant motif in Indian miniature paintings. There were several miniature painting schools in the country, including Deccan, Rajput, and Mughal schools. 

Rajasthani School of Painting/ Rajput Paintings 

Rajasthani School of Painting 

  • Since the Rajputs were the main ruling class at the time and patronised most of the artists, the Rajasthani School of Painting is more or less synonymous with the Rajput School of Painting. 
  • Rajput courts began to patronise painting in imitation of Mughal court practices. Furthermore, the presence of painters from the Mughal atelier in Bikaner, Jodhpur, or Kishangarh sowed the roots of local Rajput schools. 
  • Others claim that the Deccan sultanates‘ flood of artists and artworks played a major impact. Others argue that local and indigenous artistic traditions existed before Mughal influence arrived in certain cities. 
  • Rajasthani paintings are divided into various sub-genres, each of which is named for the princely state in which they were created. 
  • Mewar school 
  • Kishangarh school 
  • Bundi school 
  • Amber-Jaipur School 
  • Marwar School 

Rajasthani School of Painting – Features 

  • This painting technique has profound roots in Indian culture. 
  • The cults of Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Sakti had a significant impact on this school’s pictorial art. 
  • The various Krishna cults provided a highly rich canvas for the painter, who made a great contribution to the development of Indian painting with his creative skill and commitment. 
  • Bold lines and powerful, contrasting colors are hallmarks of the Rajasthani School of painting. 
  • Figures are shown flat, with little attempt to depict perspective in a naturalistic fashion. 
  • To distinguish one scene from another, the painting’s surface is sometimes divided into many compartments of different colors. 
  • The influence of the Mughals can be observed in the refinement of drawing and the introduction of some naturalism in figures and trees. 
  • Aside from displaying episodes from the Ramayana and the regal lifestyle of kings and queens, they also highlighted societal values and the improvements that monarchs made for the good of society. The Rajasthani School’s paintings were distinguished by their backgrounds. 
  • This school of painting used paper, ivory, and silk as its canvas

Raasthani School of Paintings 

Mewar school of painting 

  • Mewar monarchs appear to have patronized art, while the years of relative peace and prosperity saw an unprecedented efflorescence. 
  • The remarkable figure of Sahibdin dominates early Mewar paintings. 
  • The Rasikapriya, the Ramayana, and the Bhagavata Purana are all shown by Sahibdin during this period of Mewari art. 
  • The style of Mewar paintings shifted after Sahibdin’s death. The majority of the paintings showed life in Mewar’s courts. 
  • The remarkable ‘tamasha’ paintings, which depict court rituals and city views in unprecedented detail, are a highlight of this period. 

Mewar School of Painting 

Kishangarh school of painting 

  • The most romantic legends – Sawant Singh and his lover Bani Thani – and the merging of life and mythology, romance and bhakti are all shown in Kishangarh’s paintings. 
  • They also painted a lot about Radha and Krishna’s spiritual and romantic relationships. 

Kishangarh School of Painting 

Bundi school of painting 

  • Hadoti is the name given to the twin kingdoms of Bundi and Kota. The sister republics, which were founded by splitting the elder Bundi kingdom between two brothers, have histories and artistic traditions that are inextricably linked. 
  • The monarchs of Bundi and Kota have devoted Krishna believers, and in the 18th century, they declared themselves to be mere regents, ruling on behalf of the god who was the genuine king (similar worship patterns can also be seen in Udaipur and Jaipur). 
  • Paintings of natural vegetation were detailed in the Bundi school. In the artwork, human faces were spherical with a pointy snout. 
  • The sky is painted in various colors, with a red ribbon visible most of the time. 

Bundi School of Painting 

Amber-Jaipur School of painting 

  • The Amber school is also known as the ‘Dhundar’ school, and its oldest evidence can be seen in Rajasthan’s Bairat wall paintings. 
  • The palace walls and mausoleum of Amer palace in Rajasthan also have some paintings. Despite the fact that some of the guys are depicted in Mughal-style attire and headdress, the paintings have a folk-style finish. 
  • In the 18th century, during the reign of Sawai Pratap Singh, this school attained its pinnacle. 
  • Suratkhana, or painting department, produced miniatures to accompany the Bhagavata Purana, Ramayana, Ragamala, and a variety of portraits. 

Ajmer Aipur School of Painting 

Marwar School of painting 

  • Jodhpur and Bikaner, both controlled by the Rathods, and Jaisalmer, ruled by the Bhati’s, make up one of the most vast schools of painting. Jodhpur, like Bikaner, was a desert kingdom that prospered thanks to its ties to the Mughals. 
  • The men and ladies in paintings from the 15th and 16th centuries wore brightly colored attire. 
  • They followed Mughal traditions throughout this time, but after the 18th century, the Rajput element grew more prominent, as seen by an influx of paintings with a linear rhythm and bright colors. 
  • Many excellent paintings may be seen in the Jodhpur atelier, but the attention has always been on the exceptional paintings created during Man Singh’s (1803-1843) reign and beyond. 

Marwar School of Painting 

Conclusion 

The Rajasthani School of painting is inspired by Indian epics, religious literature such as the Puranas, love poems in Sanskrit and other Indian languages, Indian folklore, and works on musical themes. Between the fifteenth and early nineteenth centuries, this style of painting had a strong effect in Rajasthan and parts of Madhya Pradesh, including Mewar, Bundi, Kota, Jaipur, Bikaner, Kishangarh, Jodhpur (Marwar), Malwa, Sirohi, and other principalities. 

Pahari School of Painting 

Pahari painting is an umbrella word for a type of Indian painting that originated in the Himalayan hill kingdoms of North India and is mainly done in miniature size. In terms of design and colour, it is quite comparable to Rajput paintings. 

Pahari School of Painting 

  • These paintings were largely done in miniature painting forms throughout the era of the 17th to 19th centuries when they were formed and developed. 
  • Pahari painting evolved from Mughal painting, albeit it was primarily patronised by Rajput rulers who dominated many sections of the region, and it gave rise to a new idiom in Indian painting. 
  • Based on their regional diversity, Pahari paintings in India can be divided into two groups. 
  • Basohli and Kullu Style – Chaurapanchasika style 
  • Guler and Kangra Style – Calm colours and modification 

Pahari Paintings 

Pahari School of Painting – Features 

  • The themes painted spanned from mythology to literature, and new techniques were introduced. 
  • Nainsukh was a well-known master of the mid-eighteenth century, and his family workshop continued for another two generations. 
  • The representation of the eternal love of Hindu deities Radha and Krishna is the core topic of Pahari art. 
  • In a typical Pahari painting, multiple figures appear on the canvas, all of them are animated. 
  • The composition, colour, and pigmentation of each figure are unique. 
  • Identifying Pahari paintings merely by the regions in which they were painted might be deceptive, as political boundaries in the era in which they were created were flexible and frequently changed hands between different rulers. 

Jammu Kashmir style of Pahari School of Painting 

Basohli Paintings 

  • Basohli Paintings are famous in the Kathua region of Jammu and Kashmir 
  • This town has produced a remarkable Devi series, a spectacular series of the Supreme Goddess’s incarnations. 
  • The exquisite portrayal of the Rasamanjari text is likewise well-known. 
  • Basohli paintings are characterised by geometrical designs, brilliant colours, and shiny enamel. 

Basohli Painting 

Jammu Paintings 

  • Jammu paintings have a striking resemblance to Kangra paintings. 
  • Jammu created the Shangri Ramayana in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. 

Jasrota Paintings 

  • Jammu and Kashmir is home to the majority of Jasrota paintings. 
  • It revolves around kingly events, court scenes, symbolic scenes, and so on. 

Mankot Paintings 

  • Paintings from Mankot can be found in Jammu & Kashmir. 
  • It looks a lot like the Basohli kind. 
  • It makes use of vibrant colours and striking subjects. 
  • Portraiture became a popular motif in the mid-seventeenth century. 
  • Later on, realism and muted colours became more prominent. 

Mankot Paintings 

Himachal Pradesh style of Pahari School of Painting 

Chamba Paintings 

  • The style of Chamba paintings is comparable to that of Mughal art. 
  • It is heavily influenced by the Deccan and Gujarat painting styles. 
  • The Basohli style dominated Chamba paintings in the late 17th century, paving the way for the Guler painting tradition. 

Chamba Paintings 

Bilaspur Paintings 

  • Around the mid-seventeenth century, this town witnessed the growth of Pahari art. 
  • Painters created paintings on coverlets for sacraments and rites in addition to the Bhagavata Purana, Ramayana, and Ragamala series. 

Bilaspur Paintings 

Guler-Kangra Style Paintings 

  • Around the year 1800, the Guler Kangra painting style was formed. 
  • It was a naturalised version of the artwork, with noticeable differences in the treatment of the eyes and face modelling. 
  • Landscapes were also frequently shown in Guler-Kangra art. 
  • This style also emphasised Indian women’s grace and delicacy. 

Guler-Kangra Style Paintings 

Garhwal Paintings 

  • When painters from outside the region settled in Srinagar, Garhwal Paintings began. 
  • The Mughal style was first dominant. 
  • Later, it came to reflect a more straightforward interpretation of Kangra customs. 

Garhwal Paintings 

Kulu Paintings 

  • Two Madhumalati manuscripts, the Bhagavata Purana, and other Kulu-style paintings are included. 

Mandi Paintings 

  • From 1684 through 1727, Mandi witnessed the birth of a new school of painting under Raja Sidh Sen. 
  • The king was depicted as a monstrous person with exaggeratedly large heads, hands, and feet in the paintings. 
  • Other pieces featured geometric configurations and delicate, realistic features. 

Mandi Paintings 

Nurpur Paintings 

  • Himachal Pradesh is home to the Nurpur paintings. 
  • Bright colours and flat backgrounds are common in Nurpur paintings. 
  • Later periods substituted subdued colours for the bright ones. 

Nurpur Paintings 

Conclusion 

Pahari painting is a phrase that refers to a type of Indian painting that originated in the Himalayan hill kingdoms of North India and is generally done in miniature form. In terms of design and colour, it resembles Rajput art. These paintings were generally done in miniature painting types during the period of the 17th to 19th centuries. We’ll go over some of the most important aspects of Pahari painting techniques in this article. 

Painting of Mughal Empire 

Mughal paintings evolved during the reign of various Mughal Emperors in India. These paintings emerged from the Persian art of miniature painting with Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain influences, and were generally done as miniatures either as book illustrations or as solitary works. Battles, legendary stories, hunting scenes, animals, royal life, mythology, and other subjects were frequently depicted in the paintings. These paintings are also called the Mughal School of Painting. This art form grew in popularity to the point where it was adopted by other Indian courts. 

Painting of Mughal Empire – Background 

  • Miniature painting has been developing in many places since the 10th century, and it flourished in numerous regional courts throughout the Sultanate of Delhi. 
  • When Humayun, the second Mughal emperor, returned from exile, he took two renowned Persian artists – Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd al-Samad – with him. 
  • These artists were Persian and they created several notable paintings, the ‘Khamsa of Nizami,’ based on Humayun’s commands is one such. 
  • These paintings varied from the traditional style of Persian art, and so a new art form known as ‘Mughal Painting’ was established. 

Jahangir painting by Govardhan 

Growth of Mughal School of Painting 

  • The Mughal painting quickly gained popularity among emperors, who found the concept of depicting oneself in a royal manner appealing. 
  • It was also a magnificent artistic medium through which they could display their bravery and accomplishments. 
  • Following Humayun’s death, his son Akbar took over and extended his father’s library. 
  • Akbar and Jahangir are credited with the development of Mughal art. 
  • The former had a library of 24000 manuscripts, many of which were accompanied by paintings. 

Mughal Paintings During Akbar 

  • Akbar encouraged and supported art since he had learned the complexities of arts and paintings under Abd as-Samad. 
  • The Mughal painting progressed and developed at a remarkable speed throughout his reign. 
  • He commissioned a large number of paintings and paid special attention to the ultimate results of all of them. 
  • In his court, he had a large number of artists. 
  • He commissioned a series of large-scale paintings to work between 1560 and 1577. 
  • ‘Tutinama,’ which literally translates to ‘Tales of a Parrot,‘ was one of the first paintings of works commissioned by Akbar. It is a 52-part Persian narrative told in episodic form. 
  • Two Iranian artists, Abdus Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali were tasked with finishing the project, and it took them nearly five years to complete ‘Tutinama.’ 
  • ‘Tutinama’ is currently on display at the Cleveland Museum of Art in Ohio. 
  • Another major project commissioned by Akbar was ‘Hamzanama,’ which narrated the story of Amir Hamza. 
  • As Akbar had admired these stories as a child, he commissioned the re-creation of ‘Hamzanama,’ which comprised 1400 Mughal miniature paintings that were extremely large for miniatures. 
  • Gulistan,’ ‘Darab Nama,’ ‘Khamsa of Nizami,’ ‘Baharistan,‘ are other renowned paintings commissioned by Akbar. 
  • At Fatehpur Sikri, Saadi Shirazi composed his masterpiece, ‘Gulistan.’ 
  • From 1570 through 1585, Akbar employed over a hundred painters in his court to create Mughal artwork. 

Mughal Paintings During Jahangir 

  • Jahangir, like his father, showed an interest in the arts, particularly in paintings. During his reign, the Mughal painting flourished. 
  • Jahangir was heavily influenced by European painting so, he instructed his painters to utilise the European painter’s technique of single-point perspective. 
  • The Mughal painting was given a whole new viewpoint as a result of this. 
  • Jahangir even instructed his painters to copy the European painting’s depiction of kings and queens. 
  • As a result, the majority of Jahangir’s Mughal paintings had finer brush strokes and softer colours. 
  • The Jahangirnama was one of the great works he commissioned. 
  • It was Jahangir’s autobiography, and it included various paintings which depicted unique themes such as spider wars. 
  • He also commissioned several paintings of birds, animals, and flowers that were realistically depicted. 
  • Artists began to use vibrant colours like peacock blue and red and were able to provide three-dimensional effects to paintings 
  • Overall, during Jahangir’s reign, Mughal painting flourished and evolved. 

Jahangir weighing Prince Khurram 

Mughal Paintings During Shah Jahan 

  • During Shah Jahan’s reign, Mughal painting continued to flourish, but they were increasingly strict and formal. 
  • He did, however, commission a huge number of paintings for his own collection. 
  • These paintings were inspired by themes such as gardens and photos that provided a great deal of aesthetic enjoyment. 
  • He also commissioned a number of pieces depicting lovers in intimate situations. 
  • The ‘Padshanama’ was one of the most important works produced during his reign. 
  • With ample amounts of gold plating, this work was meant to appear luxurious. 
  • The ‘Padshanama,’ which detailed the King’s accomplishments, also included drawings of the courtiers and servants. 
  • The monarch and other significant dignitaries were depicted by strictly adhering to the norms of strict metamodeling. 
  • Though, the servants and courtiers were depicted utilising the frontal view technique. 
  • Shahjahan’s eldest son preferred depicting natural elements like plants and animals in his painting. 

Growth of Mughal Paintings After Shah Jahan 

  • Aurangzeb discouraged art and paintings and as a result, much of the Mughal painting’s quality was lost. 
  • This was a period when a large number of court artists moved to the provincial kingdoms. 
  • Later, Bahadur shah attempted to rejuvenate the art, but the school became dead and meaningless like the later Mughals. 

Painters During the Mughal Period 

  • Every painting endeavor entailed a large number of painters, each of whom had a distinct function to play. 
  • While a couple of them worked on the composition, the next group of artists would focus on the actual painting, and the final group would focus on the finer points of the art. 
  • Persian painters like Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd al-Samad were prominent. 
  • Painters like Daswanth, Basawan, Miskin, and Lal were Indian painters, who served in the Mughal court during the 16th and 17th centuries. 
  • Govardhan, a well-known painter, worked for three Mughal emperors: Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan. 
  • Kamal, Mushfiq, and Fazl were three other notable Mughal artists. 
  • When the Mughal Empire began to crumble, several artists began working at Rajput courts. 

Conclusion 

The establishment of the Mughal School of Painting is regarded as a watershed moment in Indian painting history. The Mughal School of Painting began under the reign of Akbar, who was passionate about the arts of painting and building in 1560 CE. During his reign, he built a painting workshop under the guidance of two Persian experts, Mir Sayyed Ali and Abdul Samad Khan, who had previously worked for his father, Humayun. Aurangzeb banned the paintings and a large number of court painters migrated. Bahadur Shah tried to revive but after 1712 CE, the Mughal painting again started deteriorating under the later Mughals. 

Dances in India 

In India, dance has long been an integral aspect of religion and culture. Dance was created by the gods, according to Indian mythology. Because it integrates song, drama, shape, and line, dancing is one of the most renowned Hindu arts. Indian dance emphasizes gestures, body positions, and head movements. Dance is a genre of performance art that consists of improvisational or pre-planned movement routines. This trend has both aesthetic and symbolic significance. 

Indian Dance Forms – Historical Background 

  • 9,000-year-old murals at the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka in India and Egyptian tomb paintings portraying dancing figures dated around 3300 BC provide archaeological evidence for early dance. 
  • Dance, it has been suggested, was an integral part of the oral and performance means of passing stories down from one generation to the next before written languages were invented. 
  • Dancers typically perform in temples, on special events, and throughout the harvest season. Dance was regularly done as a form of worship in front of deities. 
  • Deities are still invoked through religious folk dance forms in modern India, as they have been from ancient times. 
  • Mudras or hand gestures are also used in classical dance forms like Bharata Natyam to recreate incidents of epic tales like Krishna’s slaughter of Kaliya. 
  • According to Bharata Muni’s Natya Shastra, when Lord Brahma was asked by God to create a pastime, he blended elements of the four Vedas to form the Natya Veda, a fifth Veda. 
  • Natya is a fusion of Sam Vedic dance, theatre, and music, as well as Atharva Vedic Rasa (emotions). 
  • Classical and folk dance are the two most popular dance forms in India. 
  • The Natya Shastra, in which the distinctive elements of each of the Classical dance forms are outlined, has a long history with classical dance. 
  • Folk dances come in a variety of styles and numbers, depending on the local tradition of the state, ethnic group, or geographic region. 

 

Classical dance 

  • The Sanskrit scripture Natyashastra is the source of the concept and practice of Indian classical dance, which encompasses a wide range of musical theater-based performing arts. 
  • Excavations, inscriptions, chronicles, lineages of monarchs and artists, literary sources, sculpture, and paintings from different periods provide a wealth of information about dance in India. 

classical dances in India 

Dance forms Location Significance 
Bharatanatyam Tamil Nadu Nandikesvara’s Abhinaya Darpana is one of the most important texts for studying the technique and grammar of body movement in Bharatnatyam Dance. Bharatnatyam is an ekaharya dance genre in which a single dancer performs multiple characters in a single performance.. 
Kuchipudi Andhra Pradesh Kuchipudi is the name of a village in Andhra Pradesh’s Krishna district with a rich history of dance-drama. Yakshagaana was the generic name given to it. Siddhendra Yogi created the Kuchipudi style of Yakshagana in the 17th century. It’s done as a dance drama, which means it’s done in groups. 
Kathakali Kerala Kathakali is a dramatisation of stories drawn from Indian epics that combine dance, music, and acting. Distinct facial colors denote different mental stages and personalities, such as green for nobility, black for wickedness, and red patches for monarchy and evil. The importance of hand gestures, facial expressions, and eye movements cannot be overstated. 
Mohiniyattam Kerala The classical solo dance form of Kerala is Mohiniyattam, or dance of Mohini (an incarnation of Lord Vishnu). Mohiniyattam is mentioned in the literature Vyavahara Mala, written by Mazhamagalam Narayanan Namputiri in 1709. 
Odissi Odisha Lord Vishnu’s incarnations and lyrics from Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda are the main subjects of the performance. Tribhanga (the body is deflected at the neck, torso, and knees) and Chowk (the body is deflected at the neck, torso, and knees) are two primary postures (a position imitating a square). 
Manipuri Manipur The origins of Manipuri dance may be traced back to prehistoric periods, well before recorded history. In Manipur, dance is associated with rituals and traditional festivals, and there are legends about Shiva and Parvati, as well as other gods and goddesses who created the cosmos, dancing. 
Sattriya Assam Sankaradeva, a Vaishnava saint and reformer of Assam, established the Sattriya dance form in the 15th century A.D. as a means for spreading the Vaishnava faith. Sattriya is the term given to this dance style because of its religious nature and link with the Sattras 
Kathak Uttar Pradesh Kathak is derived from the word Katha, which refers to a story. With the development of the bhakti movement in the fifteenth and sixteenth century, Kathak began to evolve into a separate kind of dance. 

Folk Dance

  • Individuals create folk dances to depict the lives of people in a particular country or region. 
  • Each state or region has its unique folk dance traditions, which are based on local legends and folklore. 
  • It’s an interesting mix of composite art. 

Folk Dances in India 

Folk dance Location Significance 
Chhau Odisha It’s a type of mask dance that tells mythological stories via ferocious martial moves. Chhau was inscribed in the Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO in 2010. 
Kalbelia Rajasthan The Kalbelias are a Rajasthani tribe. Women wear flowing black skirts, dance and swirl, emulating the movements of a serpent. while men play the khanjari percussion instrument and the pungi, a woodwind instrument originally used to capture snakes. It was included in the UNESCO’S List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2010 
Mudiyettu Kerala Mudiyettu is a Kerala ritual theatre performance based on the classic account of the goddess Kali’s struggle with the demon Darika. It was included in the UNESCO’S List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2010. 
Garba Gujarat It is a popular Gujarati folk dance performed during Navratri. Garba actually refers to a “Garbha deep,” a holed earthenware pot in which a lamp is lit and ladies dance around it in a circle with rhythmic clapping. 
Dandiya Raas Gujarat Polished sticks called dandiyas are used in this dynamic, vibrant dance genre. It depicts a fictitious battle between Durga and Mahishasura. 
Tarangamel Goa It is a Goan folk dance that celebrates the region’s youthfulness. It is practiced during the Hindu festivals of Dussehra and Holi. It’s a visual show, with rainbow-like outfits, multi-colored banners, and streamers. 
Ghoomar or Gangore Rajasthan It is a traditional Rajasthani folk dance performed by ladies of the Bhil tribe. It is distinguished by the women’s pirouetting moves, which highlight the multicolored vibrancies of the following Ghaghra. 
Paika Odisha Paika is a martial folk dance popular in Odisha’s southern regions. Paika is a long spear type. The dancers are armed with wooden spears and shields and perform in army formations to demonstrate their talents and agility. 
Jat-Jatin Bihar Jat-Jatin is prevalent in Bihar’s northwestern regions, particularly in Mithila. This dance genre is unique in its depiction of a married couple’s sensitive love and dispute. 
Danda-Jatra Odisha It’s a one-of-a-kind combination of dance, drama, and music. While it mostly tells Shiva myths and legends, the overall message is social harmony and brotherhood. 
Bihu Assam Both men and women participate in a group performance. To highlight the pomp and gaiety, the dancers are clothed in colorful traditional costumes. 
Thang Ta Manipur Thang denotes a sword, while Ta denotes a spear. The dance performance is a one-of-a-kind demonstration of ability, originality, and agility in which the dancers act out a fake fight sequence, leaping to attack and defend. 

Other folk dances in India 

Dance form Location 
Matki Madhya Pradesh 
Alkap Jharkhand 
Biraha Bihar 
Bagurumba Assam 
Jhumair Assam 
Rangma Nagaland 
Singhi Chham Sikkim 
Kummi Tamil Nadu 
Mayilattam Kerala and Tamil Nadu 
Butta Bommalu Andhra Pradesh 
Kaikottikali Kerala 
Padayani Kerala 
Kolkali-Parichakali Lakswadeep, kerala 
Pata Kunitha Karnataka 
Chakyar Koothu Kerala 
Karma Naach Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and West Bengal 
Raut Naach Chhattisgarh 
Dumhal Jammu & Kashmir, 
Fugdi Goa 
Cheraw Mizoram 
Dalkhai Odisha 
Hulivesha Karnataka 
Tippani Gujarath 
Garadi Pondicherry 
Hojagiri Tripura 
Yakshagana Karnataka, kerala 

Difference between Classical dance and Folk dance 

Classical dance Folk dance 
Natya Shastra is the source of classical dance. Lasya and Tandava are the two fundamental parts of Classical dance. Folk dance is a type of dance created by people to reflect their lives, generally to the accompaniment of local music. 
Spirituality is related to classical dances. Folk dancing is often associated with agricultural harvest celebrations or social gatherings such as weddings. 
Classical dance is more difficult, with strict technical requirements. Folk dance is more enjoyable and uninhibited. Folk dance is based on local legends, mainly concerning human interactions or the changing seasons. 
Classical dances are all about elegance and grace. Folk dances are all about vigour, passion, and strength. 
Professional or highly trained dancers who have studied their form for many years perform classical dances. Professional dancers do not perform folk dances. It is a dance performed by ordinary folks. 
In India, there are eight classical dances. Kathak from North India, Assam’s Sattriya, Tamil Nadu’s Bharatanatyam, Andhra Pradesh’s Kuchipudi, Kerala’s Kathakali and Mohiniaattam, Northeast India’s Manipuri, and Odisha’s Odissi are among them. In India, there are about 30 different types of folk dances. Ghoomer (Rajasthan), Kacchi Gori Chari (Rajasthan), and Kalbelia are some of the most popular folk dances (Rajasthan). 

Conclusion 

India has a variety of classical Indian dance traditions, each with roots in different sections of the country. Indian customs, epics, and mythology influenced classical and folk dance genres. Bhangra, Bihu, Ghumura Dance, Sambalpuri, Chhau, and Garba are examples of Indian folk dances, as are unique dances performed for regional festivals such as Lohri and Navratri. 

Modern Dance in India 

  • Apart from the rich classical dance traditions and folk dance we have in our country, there is also presence of many contemporary (modern) dance forms in India. There is a general perception that modern dance is an extension of western dances. However, such a perception is not true, Indian modern dances are a genre by themselves though they may not have found the same kind of recognition as classical dances of India. Where Classical dances have a regimented and codified way of going about, modern dances on the other hand is based primarily on the imagination.Modern Indian dance has an interesting history where Uday Shankar has been credited as the Father of Modern Indian dance. Other famous modern dancers in India include- Shanti Bardhan, Shobana Jeyasingh, Amala Shankar, Dr. Manjushree Chaki-Sarkar, Ranjabati Sarkar and more. 

About Uday Shankar 

He was one of the first dancers to create a fusion of sorts. He started by dancing in cafes and cabarets in Paris in the 1930’s until he partnered Anna Pavlova. He gave the western audiences a flavor of Indian ballet in terms of dance forms, costumes and colors. He broke away from the traditional forms by not differentiating between Nirtta and Abhinaya. 

The primary aspect of his modern dance was the movement of the body for the sake of its own. Here music was composed after the dance composition and therefore, it was the movement of the free flowing body that was of utmost importance. Some of his important and popular productions are Lanka Dahan, Panchatantra and others. 

Dance and popular cinema 

Dancing has always been an integral part of Indian cinema. The dance forms have ranged from Classical styles to modern dances, folk dances and western styles. But contemporary dance forms have in fact, been most propounded by cinema along with the advent of various contemporary dance schools and academies. 

Some of the popular centers and academies that are hubs for contemporary dance forms include the Attakkalari Centre for Movement Arts in Bangalore, National Centre for the Performing Arts or NCPA, Terence Lewis Academy, Gati Dance Forum in Delhi and more.  

The growth of cinema, globalization and westernization has led to a fusion of contemporary and ancient dance forms in India. There is also a general increase in Indians adopting other non-Indian dance forms such as- ballet, freestyle dance, Polka Ten Step etc 

Is the survival of Indian classical dance and folk dance traditions threatened by the rise of non-Indian dance forms in India? 

Some have opined that the growing westernization poses an existential threat to ancient dance forms of India as it begins to lose appeal amongst the masses. However, such fears are unfounded since, the popularity of the classical dance forms continue to grow and this popularity growth is experiences in other countries as well. Ex: A 50-year-old theatre artiste Ileana Citaristi who, in 1979, flew down to India with her parents from Bergamo, Italy, to learn the various Indian dance forms. Only 11 years old then, Citaristi fell so in love with Indian classical dance forms, especially Odissi, that she never took the flight back home. 

Threats that Indian classical dance form actually faces: 

  • Despite all this, however, classical dance forms in India face two major hurdles. First and foremost is the paucity of time and depreciating attention spans of the audience. With increasing dependence on technology and lives becoming fast-paced 
  • The second hurdle is funding. Organizers say for any classical concert to reach a huge audience, one need to scale up investment. 

The fundamentals of the Indian classical traditions are strong and also the flexibility shown by the classical dance forms allows it to adopt and adept itself to the changing times. However, the challenges related to funding should be addressed by the government and other relevant stakeholders to ensure that Indian classical dance traditions are not threatened. Perhaps, most importantly, care should be taken to ensure that folk dance traditions in India are supported through appropriate measures by the stakeholders involved to ensure its survival. 

Music in India 

Classification of Indian music is based on traditions, cultures, place of origin, socio-economic practices, etc. There are numerous types of music prevalent in the Indian subcontinent, each of which falls into a different category. Some are more classically inclined, while others are experimenting with global music. Recently, there has been a trend to create a fusion of classical heritage with newer musical strands such as pop, jazz, and so on, and this is gaining popularity. 

Classical Music 

Two distinct schools of Indian classical music emerged over time: 

  • Hindustani music – It is practised in northern India. 
  • Carnatic music – It is a type of Indian classical music that is popular in the southern parts of the country. 

Hindustani Music 

  • Hindustani music is more concerned with musical structure and the possibilities for improvisation. 
  • The Hindustani branch adopted the Shudha Swara Saptaka scale, also known as the “Octave of Natural Notes.” 
  • In Hindustani music, there are ten main singing styles: ‘Dhrupad,’ ‘Dhamar,’ ‘Hori,’ ‘Khayal,’ ‘Tappa,’ ‘Chaturang,’ ‘Ragasagar,’ ‘Tarana,’ ‘Sargam,’ and ‘Thumri.’ 

Drupad Style of Singling 

Semi-classical Style of Hindustani Music 

  • Swara (note) is also used in semi-classical music. 
  • They do, however, deviate slightly from the standard structure of the raga in the way that lighter versions of ragas such as Bhoopali or Malkaush are used. 
  • They use a lighter version of tala and madhyam or dhrut laya, which means they have a faster tempo. 
  • They place a greater emphasis on bhava and lyrics than on alap-jod-tan-jhala. 
  • Some of the most well-known semi-classical styles include thumri, tappa, and ghazal. 

Carnatic Music 

  • The Carnatic branch composes music in the traditional octave. 
  • The music is kriti-based, with an emphasis on the saahitya or lyric quality of the musical piece. 
  • The Kriti is a highly developed musical song set to a specific raga and tala (rhythmic cycle). 
  • Every composition in the Carnatic style is made up of several parts: Pallavi, Anu Pallavi, Varnam and Ragamalika. 

Carnatic Music 

Hindustani Music vs Carnatic Music 

Hindustani Classical Music Carnatic Classical Music 
It originated in Northern India. It originated in southern India. 
It has been improvised over generations due to Persian, Arabian and Afghan influence. It has remained same or untouched over generations. 
There is scope for improvisation and variations. There is no freedom to improvise. 
Instruments are just as important as vocals. There is a greater emphasis on vocal music. 
There are 6 major ragas. There are 72 ragas. 
Major instruments used are Tabla, Sarangi, Sitar and Santoor. Major instruments used are Veena, Mridangum and Mandolin. 
It’s various forms include Dhrupad, Khayal, Tarana, Ghazal, etc. This includes Alapana, Niraval, Kalpnaswaram, etc. 
It has various gharanas associated with it. There is no presence of gharana systems 
Singer recites joda, a clap at fast pace. Singer recites alap and tanam. 
Thaat of pure swars is called tilawal. Thaat of pure swars is called mukhari. 

Folk Music 

  • India is a geographically diverse country, and this diversity is reflected in its culture. 
  • Each state in this country has its own style of music that serves as the foundation for its cultural identity. 
  • While classical music adheres to the Natyashastra rules and cultivates a guru-shishya (student-mentor) tradition, folk music is the music of the people and has no hard and fast rules. 
  • They have a variety of themes and are full of musical rhythm. They are also set to beats, allowing them to be dance-oriented. 
  • There are various types of folk music associated with each state. 

Folk Music 

Music Community State 
Langha (Muslim Tribal Community) Gujarat and Rajasthan 
Manganiar (Muslim Community) Rajasthan 
Karta Bhajas West Bengal 
Bauls West Bengal 
Jogi Rajasthan 
Bhopa Rajasthan 
Barot, Charan, Gadvi Gujarat 
Muria Tribes Chattisgarh 
Kamar Community Chattisgarh 
Baghela Madhya Pradesh 
Puraya Hill Tribes Tamil Nadu 
Idu Mishmi Tribes Arunachal Pradesh 
Moken Tribes Andaman and Nicobar 
Bazigar (Goaar) Community Punjab 

Fusion of Classical and Folk Music 

  • Classical and folk musics converge over time, and new forms emerge that incorporate elements of both. 
  • Usually, devotional music brings these two together because both royalty and commoners worship the deities, so the songs combine both genres. 
  • Some of the styles are as follows: 
  • Sugam Sangeet (It includes Bhajan, Shabad, qawwali) 
  • Rabindra Sangeet 
  • Gana Sangeet 
  • Haveli Sangeet 

Qawwali – Sabri Brothers 

  • In music, modernism is defined by a desire for or belief in science, nature, intelligence, anti-romanticism, and other forward-thinking ideas. 
  • Modern music is also referred to as twentieth-century music. It has been a period of significant change. 
  • Science, technology, and our growing understanding of the world around us, for example, have inspired people to write music that reflects what they see and how they feel about what they see. 
  • Art experimented with new forms, techniques, and styles during the Modern period. Composers of music did the same thing. 
  • They experimented with various methods of producing sound. Rhythmic patterns became much more free, frequently changing throughout a piece. 
  • Melody’s tone was becoming more dissonant, harsher, and was moving in leaps rather than steps. Harmony was becoming more dissonant as well. 
  • Different types of modern music includes – Jazz, Rock, Pop Music. 

Modern Music 

Conclusion 

Classification of Indian music is vast and constantly evolving, representing local traditions and cultures. It is classified into various genres based on its region of occurrence. Indian music is religious, secular in nature. In present times it also has the influence of global music. 

Indian Puppetry 

Puppeteers have received the highest honor from ancient Hindu philosophers. God Almighty has been compared to a puppeteer and the entire universe to a puppet stage. According to the Srimad Bhagavata, a major epic portraying Lord Krishna’s boyhood, God manipulates each object in the cosmos as a marionette using three strings: Satta, Raja, and Tama. Indian Puppetry is a centuries-old form of entertainment. It is an engaging experience since a puppet is controlled by a master, and it is popular among freelance artists because of the inexpensive cost of animation and production. 

Indian Puppetry- Origin 

  • Puppets with sockets have been discovered in the Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro excavation sites, indicating that puppetry was a popular art form in those days. 
  • Around 500 BC, several allusions to marionette theatre have been discovered. 
  • Puppetry is mentioned in the Tamil classic Silappadikaram, written during the first and second centuries BC, as well as in the Mahabharata. 
  • Puppetry has philosophical significance in Indian culture, in addition to being an art form. God is characterized as a puppeteer in the Bhagavad Geeta, directing the cosmos with three strings: Satta, Raja, and Tama. 
  • In Indian theatre, the storyteller is known as Sutradhar, which means “string bearer.” 
  • In many areas of India, a wide range of puppetry traditions have arisen, each with its own particular style of puppets. 
  • Mythology, folklore, and local tales were used as inspiration. Painting, sculpture, music, dance, and drama have all been infused into puppetry, resulting in a unique form of artistic expression. However, in current times, this art form has been steadily declining due to a lack of loyal audiences and financial uncertainty. 

India’s puppetry may be divided into four distinct groups. 

String Puppets 

String puppets, also known as marionettes, have a long and illustrious history in India. Marionettes with jointed limbs operated by strings have significantly more flexibility than the other puppets and are hence the most articulate. Rajasthan, Orissa, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu are just a few of the states where string puppetry has thrived. 

String Puppets 

String puppets, often known as marionettes, have an important role in Indian culture. String puppets have the following characteristics: 

  • The string puppets are usually made of wood and are eight to nine inches tall. 
  • Oil paint is used to paint the wood and to add additional face characteristics such as eyes, mouth, nose, and other facial features. 
  • The limbs are formed by joining little wooden pipes to the body. The body is then stitched and wrapped with a colorful little garment. 
  • Miniature jewels and other embellishments have been added to give it a more realistic appearance. 
  • The puppeteer controls the strings that are attached to little holes in the hands, head, and rear of the body. 
  • Strings are linked to each leg, arm, and shoulder, as well as the lower back and each side of the head. The strings are connected to a hand controller in the shape of the letters H or X. Even more strings are linked to various sections of the marionette’s body in other cases. 

In India, some of the most well-known examples of string puppetry are 

Kathputli – Rajasthan 

  • Kathputli, Rajasthan’s traditional string puppets, gets its name from the words “Kath” and “putli,” which mean “wood” and “doll,” respectively. 
  • The puppets are dressed in vibrant Rajasthani traditional attire
  • A dramatic folk music score is used to accompany the show while the puppeteer’s finger is linked to the strings. 
  • The puppets’ lack of legs is a distinguishing trait. 

Kathputli 

Kundhei – Odisha 

Kundhei – Odisha 

  • Odisha’s string puppets are called Kundhei. 
  • They are composed of light wood and have lengthy skirts on them
  • The puppets have more joints, which allows the puppeteer to move around more freely. 
  • A triangular prop is used to hold the strings. 
  • Odissi dance has a strong presence in Kundhei puppet shows. 

Kundhei 

Gombeyatta – Karnataka 

Gombeyatta – Karnataka 

  • It is a typical Karnataka puppet show
  • They are fashioned and created in the style of the Yakshagana Theatres’ numerous characters. 
  • The utilization of many puppeteers to operate the puppets is a distinctive aspect of this puppetry. 

Gombeyatta 

Bommallattam – Tamil Nadu 

Bommallattam – Tamil Nadu 

  • Bommalattam is a type of puppetry that originated in Tamil Nadu
  • It incorporates aspects of both rod and string puppetry
  • The strings are connected to an iron ring that the puppeteer wears on his head. 
  • The Bommalattam puppets are India’s largest and heaviest marionettes, with some measuring up to 4.5 feet tall and weighing up to 10 kilograms. 
  • Vinayak Puja, Komali, Amanattam, and Pusenkanattam are the four unique stages of the Bommalattam theatre. 

Bommalattam 

Shadow Puppets 

Shadow puppetry, also known as shadow play, is an old style of storytelling and entertainment that employs flat articulated cut-out figures held between a light source and a translucent screen or scrim. India has a rich tradition of shadow puppets. Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu are the states that make up the state of Tamil Nadu. 

shadow puppets 

Shadow Puppets 

  • India offers the most range of shadow puppet forms and styles. Flat figures are shadow puppets. 
  • They are made of leather that has been processed to become transparent. 
  • With a bright source of light behind it, shadow puppets are shoved on the screen. 
  • The interaction of light and screen produces silhouettes or colorful shadows, depending on the situation, for those who sit in front of the screen. 
  • In Odisha, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu the shadow puppet culture is still alive and well. 

The following are some of the characteristics of shadow puppetry: 

  • Shadow puppets are flat figurines carved out of leather that are painted in the same manner on both sides. 
  • The figures are controlled such that the silhouettes generated on the blank screen create telling visuals. 
  • The puppets are put on a white screen with light falling from behind, generating a shadow on the screen. 

The following are some well-known instances of shadow puppetry: 

Togalu Gombeyatta- Karnataka 

  • It is Karnataka‘s well-known shadow theatre. 
  • The fluctuation in puppet size based on social position is a unique aspect of the Togalu Gombayetta puppets, with huge puppets representing monarchs and religious dignitaries and smaller puppets representing poor people and slaves. 

Togalu Gombeyatta 

Ravanchhaya-Odisha 

It’s the most dramatic kind of shadow puppetry, and it’s a popular form of entertainment in Odisha. 

Ravanchhaya 

  • The deer-skin puppets represent powerful and dramatic postures. 
  • They do not have any joints, thus it’s a more difficult art to master. 
  • Non-human puppets, such as trees and animals, are frequently used. 
  • The Ravanchhaya artists have received extensive training in their craft, allowing them to create a poetic and sensitive theatrical narrative. 

Tholu Bommalata- Andhra Pradesh 

  • It is Andhra Pradesh‘s shadow theatre. 
  • The presentation is focused on mythical and religious tales from the Epics and Puranas and is complemented by a musically classic background. 
  • The puppets are bigger and have different colors on both sides. 

Tholu Bommalata 

Glove Puppets 

India has a rich tradition of Glove puppets. Glove puppets resemble limp dolls, but in the hands of a skilled puppeteer, they can perform a variety of movements. Glove puppets are a prominent Indian ritual in Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, and Kerala. 

Glove Puppets 

  • Sleeve, hand, and palm puppets are other names for glove puppets. 
  • These puppets resemble limp dolls, but in the hands of a skilled puppeteer, they can perform a variety of motions. 
  • Two hands emerge from just below the neck, and the head is constructed of papier-mache, linen, or wood. A long flowing skirt makes up the remainder of the body. 
  • The manipulation technique is straightforward; the puppet’s movements are controlled by the human hand, with the first finger put in the head and the middle and thumb serving as the puppet’s two arms. The glove puppet comes to life with the aid of these three fingers. 
  • Glove puppets are a prominent Indian ritual in Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal, and Kerala
  • Glove puppet performances in Uttar Pradesh are mainly about societal issues, but in Odisha, they are about Radha and Krishna legends. 

 
Pavakoothu, Kerala 

  • Pavakoothu is the name of a traditional glove puppet show performed in Kerala. 
  • It arose in the 18th century as a result of the impact of Kathakali, Kerala’s famed classical dance-drama, on puppet performances. 
  • The height of a puppet in Pavakoothu ranges from one to two feet. The head and arms are carved out of wood and linked with thick fabric that has been cut and sewn together to form a little bag. 
  • Paints, tiny and thin bits of gilt tin, peacock feathers, and other embellishments are used to adorn the puppets’ faces. 
  • The manipulator reaches into the bag and moves the puppet’s hands and head. 
  • Chenda, Chengila, Ilathalam, and Shankh (conch) are among the musical instruments utilized throughout the performance. 
  • Glove puppet shows in Kerala are inspired by episodes from either the Ramayana or the Mahabharata. 

Pavakoothu 

Beni Putul, West Bengal 

  • Dolls for commercial purposes is what it signifies. 
  • It was utilized as a weapon of resistance against British rule. 

Beni Putul 

  • This was popular in the districts of East Midnapur, Murshidabad, and 24 Parganas. 

Sakhi Nach, Odisha 

  • Glove puppetry is a prominent kind of puppetry in Odisha. 
  • The plays are largely based on Krishna and Radha legends
  • It is well-known in the districts of Bhubaneswar and Cuttack. 

Sakhi Nach 

Rod Puppets 

Rod puppets are an extension of glove puppet that has been developed more. Rod puppets are larger than glove puppets and are held and handled from below by one or more rods/sticks of various sizes. This form of puppetry now is found mostly in West Bengal and Orissa. 

Rod Puppets 

  • West Bengal and Odisha are known for their rod puppetry. 
  • These puppets are typically made up of three joints. 
  • The primary rod supports the puppet’s head, which is connected at the neck, and both hands are attached to the rods at the shoulder. 
  • The puppet’s robe or clothing hides the main rod. 
  • The puppet’s hands are attached to the action rods. 
  • The puppeteer shows action by manipulating the puppeteer’s hands. 
  • The puppet’s body and hands are fashioned of bamboo, rice husk, and hay. All of the ingredients are combined and moulded into the desired form. 
  • The puppets are dressed in dhotis or saris according to the needs of the character. 

Some of the popular examples are: 

Yampuri, Bihar 

Yampuri, Bihar 

  • It is Bihar’s traditional rod puppet. 
  • The puppets are typically made of wood and have no joints. 

Yampuri 

  • They are carved from a single piece of wood, then painted and clothed in vibrant colors. 

Putul Nach, West Bengal 

Putul Nach, West Bengal 

  • It is the Bengal-Odisha-Assam region’s traditional rod puppet dance. 
  • The figurines are usually three to four feet tall and costumed like Jatra characters
  • A musical troupe of three to four musicians plays harmonium, cymbals, and tabla during the performance. 

Putul Nach 

Kathi Kandhe, Odisha 

Kathi Kandhe, Odisha 

  • Rod puppetry is called Kathi Kandhe in Odisha. 

Kathi Kandhe 

  • The Kathi Kandhe rod puppets are substantially smaller than the Putul Nach rod puppets of West Bengal. 
  • The stories are based on epic Ramayana and Purana legends, as well as social themes. 
  • The play’s music opens with a brief piece of ritual orchestral prelude called Stuti and ends with the play itself. 
  • During the performance, medieval songs like Bhajan, Champu, Koili, and Chautisha are usually sung. However, the songs are sung differently or in a different style to appeal to a wider audience. 

Reasons behind Puppetry Art’s Lack of Popularity 

There are several explanations for this, which are given below. 

  • Patronage in the contemporary era is scarce. 
  • Electronic media, which is a favored method of entertainment, is a competitor. People prefer to see epic stories like the Ramayana and Mahabharata on television than puppetry. 
  • Typically, puppetry art is limited to religious and mythical stories. 
  • Puppetry does not address contemporary societal concerns in our day and age. 
  • In terms of writing, lighting, sound, and other stage effects, puppetry is outdated. 

Conclusion 

In most regions of the globe, puppetry has played an essential role in sharing information. Puppetry incorporates aspects from many art disciplines, including literature, painting, sculpture, music, dance, and theatre, and allows students to express themselves creatively. 

Indian Pottery 

Pottery has a long history on the Indian subcontinent and is one of the most palpable and iconic parts of Indian art. Pottery has been discovered in early Lahuradewa towns and later in the Indus Valley Civilization. It is a cultural art form that is still widely practised in the Indian subcontinent today In India, pottery is still a popular art form. 

Indian Pottery 

  • Pottery has been discovered in the early villages of Mehrgarh dating back to the Indus Valley Civilization (3300 BCE- 1500 BCE). 
  • It is a cultural art form that is still widely practiced in India today. Pottery is significant in the study of culture and the reconstruction of the past. 
  • The style of pottery has evolved over time in response to different cultures. It represents the social, economic, and environmental conditions in which civilizations flourished, aiding archaeologists and historians in comprehending our history. 
  • It is useful for deciphering cultures where there’s no script or where the script hasn’t been decoded. 

Indian Pottery 

Evolution of Pottery in India 

Neolithic Age (10000 BCE) 

It is the first reference of pottery in this period. It is hand-made pottery, but later periods also utilized a foot-wheel. 

Chalcolithic Age (4500- 2000 BCE) 

  • The prevalence of various ceramic cultures distinguishes it. 
  • Black and red-ware pottery, black-on-red ware, and ochre-colored pottery are other examples. 

Indus Valley Civilization (3300 BCE- 1500 BCE) 

  • Polished Ware was one of the pottery traditions that existed during the period. 
  • Pottery with a rough surface, Harappa Burial Pottery, Ochre colored pottery (OCP), Black-grey burnished ware, Black-on-red ware, Grey-ware, and Painted grey-ware are all examples of pottery with a rough surface. 

Harappan Pottery 

Vedic Age (1500- 500 BCE) 

Painted Grey-ware (PGW), Northern Black Polished ware (NBPW), and megalithic pottery unearthed in Kerala are examples of pottery traditions that existed during the period. 

Painted Grey Ware 

Mauryan Period ( 321 BCE- 185 BCE) 

  • The pottery wheel became widely used. 
  • There are numerous different types of ceramics linked with the Mauryan period. However, the most advanced technique may be observed in a form of pottery called 
  • Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP) was popular during the previous and early Mauryan eras. 

Mauryan Pottery 

Kushana Period (1st to 4th Century AD) 

  • In Bengal and North India, the Kushan cultural phase ushered in a new age in ceramics. 
  • A distinctive red polished ware with stamped design, as well as a significant number of dull or strong redware, characterizes this phase’s pottery. 

Period of the Guptas (4th and 5th Century AD) 

  • Gupta pottery remnants discovered in Ahichchhatra, Rajgarh, Hastinapur, and Bashar provide exceptional evidence of ceramic expertise. 
  • Redware is the most characteristic type of pottery from this time period. 

Turko-Mughal and Rajput Period (12th Century AD onwards) 

  • In the 13th century AD, Turkish kings encouraged potters from Persia, Central Asia, and other parts of the world to settle in what is now Northern India. 
  • Gujarat and Maharashtra have glazed ceramics with Persian models and Indian motifs originating from the Sultanate period. 
  • Jaipur’s modern-day Blue Pottery is commonly regarded as a classic Jaipur skill. 

Blue Pottery 

Conclusion 

Pottery is significant in the study of culture and the reconstruction of the past. The style of pottery has evolved over time in response to different cultures. It represents the social, economic, and environmental conditions in which civilization flourished, aiding archaeologists and historians in comprehending our history. 

Indian Theatre 

Indian theatre began as a narrative art form that combined music, dance, and acting. Theatrical performances included recitation, dance, and music. Brahma created the Natya Veda for the pastime of Gods, according to Bharat Muni’s Natya Shastra, by combining elements from the four Vedas. Natya shastra is the first formal treatise on dramaturgy and was written between 200 BC and 200 AD. It describes ten types of plays, ranging from one-act to ten acts, and covers all aspects of classical Sanskrit literature. 

Origin of Theatre Forms in India 

  • The Sanskrit theatre, which arose after the establishment of Greek and Roman theatres in the west, was India’s first type of classical theatre. 
  • According to one account, this development arose as a result of Alexander the Great’s invasion of India. The invading army presented Greek-style plays, which were caught up by the native Indian populace. 
  • While some say that traditional Indian theatre predates it, it is widely acknowledged that classical Greek theatre has influenced it. 
  • The excavated ruins at Sitabena and Jogimara caves are thought to be the world’s oldest amphitheatres. This is just one example of the long tradition of theatre in the Indian cultural landscape. 

Indian Theatre – Features 

  • Acting, conversation, poetry, and music are all used in Indian theatre. It began as a narrative form of art in which recitations, dance, and song were used to convey local history, society ethos, and so on. 
  • It is founded on spontaneous creativity that emerges from situations in which the intensity of expressions and natural emotions are derived from the social system rather than from any classical or grammatical basis. 
  • Traditional theatrical forms are nearly always performed during religious festivals, ceremonial offerings, meetings, and prayers. 
  • It portrays ordinary people’s habits, beliefs, social knowledge, and feelings. It’s a mash-up of entertainment and religious observances. 
  • There are six main elements of theatre, viz., Plot, Character, Thought, Diction, Music and Spectacle. 
  • For study purposes, Indian Theatre can be divided into Classical Sanskrit Theatre, Folk Theatre, and Modern Indian Theatre. 

Classical Sanskrit Theatre 

  • The Sanskrit term ‘nataka’ comes from the root word ‘nata,’ which means dancer in Sanskrit. 
  • Drama was also referred to as Rupaka, Drishyakavya, and Preksakavya. There were two sorts of plays in ancient India: 
  • Lokadharmi: These were realistic portrayals of everyday life. 
  • Natyadharmi: These were traditional plays with more stylized storytelling and overt symbolism. 
  • Previously, Sanskritic theatre dominated society, with Ashvagosha, Kalidasa, Vishakadatta, and others making significant contributions. 
  • Sanskritic theatrical traditions eventually fell out of favour as a result of divergence toward poetry, limited creative areas, loss of popularity, and the arrival of Muslim rulers. 
  • Folk theatre later brought India’s rich history to other sections of the country. 

Koodiyattam 

Folk Theatre 

  • India has a long legacy of folk theatre in many areas of the country. Traditional folk theatre portrays numerous aspects of local culture, such as social conventions, beliefs, and practices. 
  • Folk theatre had rural roots, and the rustic flavor was reflected in the dramatic technique involved, whereas Sanskrit theatre was more urban-oriented and sophisticated in its interpretation of the play. 

Folk Theatre 

  • The majority of the still-existing folk theatre has devotional themes and dates from the 15th to 16th century AD. 
  • With time, however, it began to incorporate love ballads and stories of local heroes and therefore took on more secular tones. 
  • Folk theatre became a prominent technique of disseminating societal wisdom rather than simply social enjoyment in the post-independence period. 
  • Indian Folk theatre can be categorized into three types: 

Modern Indian Theatre 

  • Modern theatre, or what is known historically as the Western proscenium type of theatre, was not introduced in India until the late eighteenth century, when the British Empire was consolidating in various areas of India. 
  • Western proscenium-style theatre made its way to Indian shores thanks to the British. 
  • We had the first Bengali-language theatre in the 1830s, which was beyond the customary framework of indigenous folk performance genres, thanks to the support of wealthy native families. 
  • During the 1850s and 1920s, Parsi Theatres were popular in Western India, with plays produced in regional languages such as Gujarati and Marathi. Music and colourful backgrounds were required. 
  • Sangeet Natak Akademi was founded in 1952 to promote performing arts, especially theatre, and to help the growth of theatre in India. 
  • The National School of Drama has contributed to the development of notable theatre figures. 

Modern Indian Theatre 

Conclusion 

In the Indian social structure, living traditions play a significant role. There is a natural flow to any living culture. Traditional art forms, such as Theatre, without a doubt, represent the aspirations of a civilization, its resolve to live, its ethos, emotions, and fellow feelings, among other things. Indian Theatre is an important part of the Indian social structure. In many ways, it depicts the social customs and beliefs of society. 

Martial Arts in India 

The fighting systems of the Indian subcontinent are referred to as Indian martial arts. The English phrase “Indian martial arts” is referred to by a variety of words, most of which are derived from Dravidian roots. While they may appear to refer to certain disciplines (e.g., archery, armed warfare), they were used to refer to all fighting techniques by Classical times. Martial arts are part of the Indian Culture. A number of martial arts forms in the country are closely related to dance, yoga, and performing arts. 

Martial Arts In India 

  • India, a country rich in culture and ethnic diversity, is recognized for its numerous martial arts, which date back to ancient times
  • These art forms, which were once employed for battle, are now commonly utilized for demonstration, as part of a ritual, to achieve physical fitness, or as a way of self-defense. 
  • The term “martial art” literally translates to “arts-related with the conduct of battle.” 
  • Dance, yoga, and the performing arts are all strongly tied to martial arts in the nation. 
  • Some of the art forms, including Kalaripayattu and Silambam, were forbidden during British control, but they revived and gained popularity after independence. 

Kalaripayattu 

  • Kalaripayattu, one of India’s oldest martial arts, started in the state of Kerala in the third century BC and is now practiced across Southern India. 
  • Kalari refers to a certain sort of school/gymnasium/training hall where martial arts are performed or taught in Malayalam. 

Kalaripayattu 

Silambam 

  • Silambam is a sophisticated and scientific martial art from Tamil Nadu that is similar to staff fencing. During their reigns, the Pandyas, Cholas, and Cheras promoted it. 
  • Silappadikaram, a Tamil literary work from the second century AD, mentions the selling of silambam staves, pearls, swords, and armour to foreign traders. 

Silambam 

Thang-ta and Sarit Sarak 

  • Thang-ta is an armed martial art developed by the Meitei people of Manipur and is considered one of the most devastating combat disciplines. 
  • Sarit Sarak, on the other hand, is a non-violent, hand-to-hand combat style. Their history may be traced back to the 17th century when the Manipuri monarchs successfully employed it to combat the British. 

Thang-ta 

Cheibi Gad-ga 

  • Cheibi Gad-ga, one of Manipur’s oldest martial arts, includes fighting with a sword and a shield. 

Pari-Khanda 

  • Pari-khanda is a Bihar-based martial technique originated by Rajputs. 
  • Fighting with a sword and shield is a part of it. Its routines and methods are frequently employed in Chhau dance, which is still practiced in many regions of Bihar. 

Pari-khanda 

Thoda 

  • Thoda, which originated in Himachal Pradesh, is a fusion of martial arts, sports, and culture. 
  • Every year during the Baisakhi celebration in April, it takes place. 

Thoda 

Gatka 

  • Gatka is a weapon-based martial art discipline practiced by Punjabi Sikhs. 
  • The term ‘Gatka’ alludes to a person who is free by grace. 
  • Gatka is known for its expert use of weapons such as the stick, Kirpan, Talwar, and Kataar. 

Gatka 

Mardhani Khel 

This is a traditional Maharashtrian armed martial technique that is commonly practiced in the Kolhapur district. 

Mardhani khel 

Lathi Khela 

  • Lathi is a country’s ancient armed martial art style, as well as one of the world’s oldest weapons utilized in martial arts. 
  • Lathi is a term for a ‘stick’ (typically cane sticks) that is 6 to 8 feet long and occasionally has a metal point. 
  • Police in India has been spotted using similar Lathis to keep crowds under control. It is mostly performed in Punjab and Bengal, although it is still a popular sport in rural areas. 

lathi khela 

Inbuan Wrestling 

  • Inbuan Wrestling, a Mizoram native martial art, is thought to have originated about 1750 AD. 
  • Stepping out of the circle, kicking, and knee bending are all strictly forbidden. The only way to win is to pull your opponent off their feet while strictly following the rules. 

inbuan wrestling 

Kuttu Varisai (Empty-Hand Silambam) 

  • Kuttu Varisai, which means ’empty hand combat,’ was first described in Sangam literature (1st or 2nd century BC). 
  • Kuttu Varisai is mostly done in Tamil Nadu, while it is also popular in Sri Lanka’s north-eastern region and Malaysia. 

Kuttu varisai 

Musti Yuddha 

Musti Yuddha is an unarmed martial art discipline similar to boxing that originated in Varanasi, India’s oldest city. Kicks, punches, knee and elbow blows are among the tactics used. 

Musti Yuddha 

Some other prominent martial arts of India 

Martial Art Place of Origin Features 
Paikha Akhada Odisha It’s a mix of dancing and warfare. Originally employed by soldiers, it is today utilized as a kind of entertainment. 
Sqay Kashmir Uses swords and shields. 
Kathi Samu India The State’s royal forces have acquired this ancient art. 
Bandesh Andhra Pradesh Without murdering an armed opponent, ancient unarmed art employs a variety of lock grips. 
Malla Yuddha South India Other Southeast Asian wrestling forms, such as Naban, are connected to traditional combat wrestling. Siddhartha Gautama, Krishna Deva Raya, and others were famous practitioners. 
Malla Khamb Maharashtra It necessitates a high level of focus due to the use of a pole and rope. 
Insu Knawr Mizoram This game is played in a circle with a circular wooden rod. 
Kirip Saldu Nicobar It is also known as Nicobarese wrestling. 
Varma Adi Tamil Nadu Attacks aim at the body’s vital parts. 

Conclusion 

Martial arts flourishes in Indian Culture. Consistent training not only prepares the mind and body to fight back in a violent scenario, but also aids the body in fighting disease, staying flexible, strong, and energetic as individuals age. Martial arts can help you relieve tension and unleash pent-up energy. 

Visual Arts 

Sculptures of Harappan Civilization 

Sculptures of the Harappan Civilization hold a significant role in understanding the lifestyle of the Harappan people. It also helps historians to understand the civilization further. 

Sculptures of the Harappan Civilization 

  • During the second millennium, the arts of the Indus Valley civilization, one of the world’s first civilizations, arose. Sculptures, seals, ceramics, gold jewelry, terracotta figurines, and other types of art have been discovered at many civilization sites. 
  • Their renderings of human and animal forms were extremely lifelike and the modeling of figures was done with utmost caution. 
  • The major materials used for sculptors were: Stone, Bronze, Terracotta, Clay, etc. 

 
Stone Sculptures of Harappan Civilization 

The handling of the 3-Dimensional volume may be seen in stone figures found in Indus valley sites. There are two major stone statues: 

  1. In Mohenjo-Daro, a Bearded Man (Priest Man, Priest-King) was discovered. The main features of the figure were: 
  • Steatite figurine of a bearded guy. 
  • The figure is covered in a shawl that comes under the right arm and covers the left shoulder, indicating that it is a priest. The shawl has a trefoil design on it. 
  • As in contemplative concentration, the eyes are extended and partially closed. 
  • The nose is well-formed and of average size. 
  • Short beard and whiskers, as well as a short moustache. 
  • A basic woven fillet is carried around the head once the hair is separated in the center. 
  • A right-hand armlet and holes around the neck imply a necklace. 
  • Overall, there is a hint of the Greek style in the statues. 

Bearded Priest 

  1. Male Torso 
  • Red sandstone was used to create it. 
  • The head and arms are attached to the neck and shoulders through socket openings. Legs have been broken. 
  • The shoulders are nicely browned, and the belly is a little protruding. 
  • It is one of the more expertly cut and polished pieces. 

Bronze Sculptures of Harappan Civilization 

  • Bronze casting was conducted on a large scale in practically all of the civilization’s main sites. 
  • Bronze casting was done using the Lost Wax Technique. 

Lost Wax Technique 

  • At first, the required figure is formed of wax and coated with clay. After allowing the clay to dry, the entire assembly is heated to melt the wax within the clay. The melted wax was then drained out of the clay section through a small hole. 
  • The molten metal was then poured into the hollow clay mold. The clay coating was fully removed once it had cooled. 
  • The Bronze casting includes both human and animal representations. 
  • The buffalo, with its raised head, back, and sweeping horns, and the goat, among animal representations, are aesthetic assets. 
  • Bronze casting was popular at all locations of Indus valley culture, as evidenced by the copper dog and bird of Lothal and the Bronze figure of a bull from Kalibangan. 
  • Metal casting persisted until the late Harappan, Chalcolithic, and other peoples following the Indus valley civilization. 

Examples of Bronze Casting are: 

Dancing Girl 

  • Founded in Mohenjo-Daro, is one of the best-known artifacts from Indus valley. 
  • It depicts a girl whose long hair is tied in a bun and bangles cover her left arm. 
  • Cowry shell necklace is seen around her neck with her right hand on her hip and her left hand clasped in a traditional Indian dance gesture. 

Dancing Girl 

Bull from Mohenjo-Daro 

  • Mohenjo-Daro has a bronze statue of a bull. 
  • The bull’s massiveness and the charge’s wrath are vividly depicted. 
  • The animal is seen standing to the right with his head cocked. 
  • A cord is wrapped around the neck. 

Terracotta Sculptures of Harappan Civilization 

  • In Gujarat and Kalibangan, terracotta statues are more lifelike. 
  • A few figures of bearded males with coiled hairs are found in terracotta, their stance firmly erect, legs slightly apart, and arms parallel to the sides of the torso. The fact that this figure appears in the same posture over and over again suggests that he was a divinity. 
  • There was also a clay mask of a horned god discovered. 
  • Terracotta was also used to create toy carts with wheels, whistles, rattles, birds and animals, gamesmen, and discs. 
  • Mother Goddess figurines are the most important clay figures. 

The main example of a terracotta figure is: 

Mother Goddess 

  • Mohenjo-Daro is where it was found. 
  • These are mainly crude standing figurines. 
  • Wearing a loin robe and a grid, she is adorned with jewelry dangling from her large breast. 
  • The mother goddess’s distinctive ornamental element is her fan-shaped headpiece with a cup-like protrusion on either side. 

Mother Goddess 

  • The figure’s pellet eyes and beaked snout are exceedingly primitive (constructed in a rudimentary way). 
  • A tiny hole indicates the mouth. 

Conclusion 

The artists and craftsmen of the Indus Valley were extremely skilled in a variety of crafts—metal casting, stone carving, making and painting pottery, and making terracotta images using simplified motifs of animals, plants, and birds, making the civilization a rich one. 

Sculptures of Mauryan Age 

The Maurya period between the 4th and 2nd Century BC is highlighted by significant advancements in Indian sculpture. The Lion Capital of Sarnath, Yaksha, and Yakshini figures are famous examples of Mauryan Sculptures. 

Mauryan Sculpture 

Mauryan Sculpture (4th and 2nd Century BC) 

  • Local sculptors’ work exemplifies the Mauryan Period’s popular art. This included sculpture that was most likely not commissioned by the Emperor. 
  • The local governors were supporters of popular art. Dr. Ananda Coomarswamy divides Mauryan sculptures into two categories: Court art and Popular art. 
  • The pillars and their capitals are considered Court art, while the works of sculptors such as the Yakshas and Yakshinis are considered popular art. 
  • Popular art includes the Yaksha picture from Parkam and the Yakshini figure from Besnagar. 

Influence of Religions on Mauryan Sculptures 

  • Religious activities in ancient days had numerous aspects and were not limited to a single method of worship. 
  • During the Maurya period, Buddhism became the most prominent social and religious movement. 
  • Yaksha worship was immensely prevalent both before and after Buddhism, and it was extensively incorporated into both Buddhism and Jainism. As a result, throughout the Mauryan Empire, the notion of sacred sculpture was prevalent. 

Influence of Foreign Countries on Maurya Sculpture 

  • It is generally known that the first three Mauryan emperors, Chandragupta, Bindusara, and Asoka, had cordial connections with the Hellenic West, notably with the court of the great Seleucid rulers, who may be considered heirs of Alexander the Great and the Achaemenids of Iran. 
  • This might point to the origins of foreign influences, and an adaptation of Achaemenid models has been found in the Edicts of Asoka and the ruins of the Mauryan palace at Pataliputra’s imperial capital. 
  • The Mauryan pillars, on the other hand, are not the same as the Achaemenid pillars. The Mauryan pillars are rock-cut, demonstrating the carver’s expertise, but the Achaemenid pillars are pieced together by a mason. 

Mauryan Court Art 

  • Excellent stone sculpture emerged in its entirety during the Maurya dynasty. The stone was now utilized for sculpture and building throughout the country. 
  • During the Maurya dynasty, the stone surface was also given a dazzling polish. Mauryan art is known for its dazzling mirror-like gloss and wide range of compositions. 
  • Stone pillars, railings, parasols, capitals, animal and human sculptures, and a variety of other themes are all examples of this art. 
  • Throughout the Mauryan Empire, stone pillars were built with inscriptions carved on them. 
  • The pillar’s top was carved with capital figures such as a bull, a lion, an elephant, and so on. A square or circular abacus supports each capital figure. The abacuses are embellished with stylized lotuses. 
  • Basarah-Bakhira, Lauriya- Nandangarh, Rampurva, Sankisa, and Sarnath are some of the notable sites where the pillars have been discovered. 

Mauryan Popular Art 

  • Yakshas and Yakshinis are depicted in popular art throughout the Maurya period. Yaksha refers to friendly nature spirits, commonly known as fertility spirits. 
  • The female Yakshini is the male Yaksha’s equivalent. Yaksha is also the name of one of Ancient India’s Exotic Tribes. 
  • Natural riches are cared for by Yakshas and Yakshinis. They occupy a major role in Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist literature, as well as being depicted in Buddhist and Jain sacred monuments. 
  • Large sculptures of Yakshas and Yakhinis have been discovered in India, primarily in standing positions, in areas like Patna, Vidisha, and Mathura. 
  • The smooth surface and clear physiognomic characteristics are the most prevalent elements in these photographs. 

Yakshini of Didarganj 

  • The Yakshi figure from Didarganj, Patna, is one of the greatest specimens of popular Maurya art. 
  • This free-standing sculpture in sandstone with a polished surface is tall, well-built, and balanced, displaying the complexity in the treatment of form and medium. 
  • Yakshini’s right hand is holding a chauri (flywhisk), while her left hand is shattered. The sculptor’s sensitivity to the round strong female human form may be seen in this photograph. Muscle folds are represented correctly. 
  • The illusion of a protruding belly is created by tightening the fabric around the belly. The bottom garment has been meticulously crafted. 
  • Protruding lines adhere to the legs, creating a slightly translucent impression, exposing every fold of the garment on the legs. The large breasts and impressive back indicate thoracic heaviness. 

Yakshini of Didarganj 

Elephant sculpture at Dhauli 

  • The Elephant Rock Cut Sculpture at Dhauli, Odisha, shows the fore-part of an elephant carved over the Edicts of Asoka, including the two expressly intended for Kalinga. 
  • A tone and sentiment distinct from those expressed in the animal forms surmounting the pillar capitals may be detected in the modeling and execution of this elephant sculpture. 
  • It depicts a good delineation of bulky volume and live flesh, as is innate to that animal, as well as a dignified movement and linear rhythm that is only matched by the elephant image in relief on the Sarnath capital’s abacus. 

Elephant sculpture at Dhauli 

Facades of Lomus Rishi Cave 

  • The Lomus Rishi cave is a rock-cut cave located in the Barabar hills near Gaya, Bihar. 
  • The cave’s front is adorned with a semicircular chaitya arch that serves as the entrance. 
  • For the Ajivika sect, Ashoka patronized the cave. The cave of Lomus Rishi is a unique specimen of this time period. 

Conclusion 

Mauryan art is art created between 322 and 185 BCE under the Mauryan Empire, which was the first empire to control much of the Indian subcontinent. It marked a significant shift in Indian art from the use of wood to stone. It was a royal art that Mauryan rulers, particularly Ashoka, supported. 

Post-Mauryan Art and Sculpture 

India after the Mauryas was not a particularly remarkable time in terms of political unity, but it did see a significant development of Indian art and culture. After Ashoka’s successors failed to maintain the empire, several tiny kingdoms arose across the Indian subcontinent. The Sunga dynasty quickly supplanted the Mauryan Dynasty. Brahmanical sects such as the Shaivas and the Vaishnavas arose during this time. 

Post Mauryan Art 

  • In India, there are various sites that date back to the second century BCE. 
  • Vidisha, Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), Bodhgaya (Bihar), Jaggayyapeta (Andhra Pradesh), Mathura (Uttar Pradesh), Khandagiri-Udayagiri (Odisha), Bhaja near Pune, and Pavaninear Nagpur are some of the most renowned examples of the greatest sculpture. 

Bharhut 

  • Bharhut stupas are towering, like the Mauryan depictions of Yaksha and Yakshini. 
  • The sculptural volume is modeled in low relief to ensure linearity. 
  • Narratives depict relief panels, and selecting major events improves the clarity of the narratives. 
  • Narrative panels begin with fewer characters, but as time goes on, others, in addition to the main character in the story, have begun to appear in the picture space. 
  • At Bharhut, narrative reliefs demonstrate how artists effectively communicated stories using pictorial language. 
  • One such story is Queen Mahamaya/(Siddhartha Mayadevi’s Gautama’s mother) dream. 
  • The queen is reclining on the bed, with an elephant on the top of the bed moving towards Mayadevi’s womb. 
  • The portrayal of a Jataka story, on the other hand, is quite basic – it is recounted by grouping events according to the geographical area of the story, such as the Ruru Jataka picture, which shows a Bodhisattva deer rescuing a man on his back. 
  • Such Jataka stories were used to decorate stupas. 
  • As the number of stupas built in different sections of the country increased, regional artistic differences emerged. 

Bharhut stupa 

 
Sanchi 

  • In terms of stylistic advancement, the next phase of cultural growth at Sanchi stupa-1, Mathura, and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh is remarkable. 
  • Sanchi’s Stupa-1 contains both an upper and lower pradakshina patha or circumambulatory walk. 
  • The sculptures on the entrances of Stupa-1 make it the best example of stupa building (torans). 
  • It began as a tiny brick structure that grew over time and was eventually covered in stone, vedika (fence), and torans
  • It includes four ornately decorated Torans (Gateways) portraying scenes from Buddha’s life and Jataka stories. 
  • Figure compositions have a lot of relief and take up a lot of room. 
  • The stance is depicted in a naturalistic manner, with no stiffness in the body. 
  • The story becomes more detailed, and the carving methods appear to be more sophisticated than Barhut’s. 
  • Symbols continued to depict Buddhas or Buddhas from the past (according to the textual tradition there are 24 Buddhas, but only the first one, Dipankar, and the last six are pictorially represented). 
  • Despite the fact that the narrative becomes more complex, the portrayal of the dream episodes stays simple (the dream of queen Mayadevi). 
  • Stupa-2 houses the relics of ten lesser-known Arhats from three generations. (An Arhat is a perfected person who has gained Nirvana in Theravada Buddhism.
  • In some Buddhist traditions, the phrase refers to persons who have made significant progress on the path to Enlightenment but have not yet attained full Buddhishood. 
  • The relics of Sariputta and Mahamoggallana/Mahamouglayan can be found in Stupa-3 (disciples of Gautama Buddha). 
  • The top pradakshina patha is likewise peculiar to this location (i.e., totally two pradakshina patha). 
  • The four doorways are adorned with statues in abundance. 
  • An empty throne, feet, chhatra, stupas, and other symbols are used to represent Buddha. 
  • Torans can be built in any of the four directions. 
  • Despite the fact that stupa-1 is the earliest stupa, the carvings on stupa-2’s vedika are older than those on stupa-1. 
  • The Jataka stories became an important component of the stories as well. 
  • Sanchi’s figures, despite their small size, are extremely realistic. 
  • On sculptors, there are guardian images, and salabhanjika sculptures are notable for their quantity (salabhanjika sculptures are sculptures of ladies holding a branch of a tree/plate, etc.). 
  • The representations of salabhanjika support the elongation of the lowermost horizontal bar from below. 
Sanchi Stupa

Mathura, Sarnath, Amaravati, and Gandhara Schools 

  • Gandhara (now Pakistan), Mathura in Uttar Pradesh, and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh all became prominent centres of art from the first century CE onwards. 
  • In Mathura and Gandhara, Buddha’s symbolic form was transformed into a human form. 
  • In Gandhara, the sculptural tradition merged Bacteria, Parthia (both Indo-Greeks), and the native Gandhara heritage
  • Mathura’s indigenous sculptural culture grew to such prominence that it extended throughout northern India. The stupa sculpture located in Sanghol, Punjab, is the best example. 
  • The Buddha picture at Mathura is based on earlier Yaksha images, whereas it includes Hellenistic characteristics in Gandhara. 
  • Vishnu and Shiva are seen with their respective Ayudhas (weapons). 
  • The characteristics of the several architectural schools are described here, along with an appropriate example from each. 
  • Sultanganj Buddha is a good illustration of this (7.5ft in height). 

Gandhara school of art 

Sarnath school of art 

Mathura school of art 

Seated Buddha, Katra mount 

  • Mathura has a vast number of images dating back to the Kushan period. 
  • The second-century CE figure of Buddha from Katra Mount.seated Buddha sculpture from Katra Mount 
  • It depicts the Buddha with two Bodhisattvas as his companions. 
  • The Buddha is sitting in Padmasana with his right hand in Abhaya Mudra. 
  • The Buddha’s face is round, with chubby cheeks. 
  • With a vertical elevated projection, the Ushnisha (hair knot) is depicted. 
  • This period’s Mathura sculptures are produced with a light volume and a fleshy form. 
  • Only one shoulder is covered by the sanghati (garment)
  • The representations of Padmapani and Vajrapani Bodhisattvas, one holding a lotus and the other a Vajra, are recognised as the attendant figures (Thunderbolt). 
  • The huge halo that surrounds Buddha’s head is adorned with simple geometric designs. 
  • Two flying figures are positioned diagonally above the halo. 

Seated buddha – katra mound 

Seated Buddha at Sarnath 

  • The late fifth-century CE figure of Buddha from Sarnath is fashioned of chunar sandstone. 
  • Padmasana depicts the Buddha seated on a throne. 
  • Sarnath’s seated Buddha image 
  • As the figures on the throne show, it signifies Dharmachakrapravartana (first sermon). 
  • A Chakra (wheel) is depicted in the centre of the panel below the throne, with a deer on either side and his students. 
  • As a result, it is a portrayal of the historic occurrence of Dharmachakrapravartana, or dhamma preaching. 
  • It is the best example of sculpture from the Sarnath School. 
  • In comparison to earlier images from the Kushana period at Mathura, the face is round, the eyes are half closed, the lower lip protrudes, and the roundness of the cheeks has decreased. 
  • Dhamma Chakra Pravartana Mudra is presented on the hands. 
  • The hair on the Ushnisha is curled in a round pattern. 
  • The goal of ancient Indian sculptures was to depict the Buddha as a wonderful human being who had attained Nibbana (cessation of anger and hate). 

Seated buddha – Sarnath 

Buddha Head- Gandhara 

  • The Buddha head from Taxila in Pakistan’s Gandhara region dates from the second century CE and is from the Kushan period. 
  • It demonstrates the development of a hybridised pictorial convention during the Gandhara period. 
  • It has Greek and Roman influences. 
  • The Buddha Head features aspects that are typical of Hellenistic art. 
  • Buddha’s curly hair is thick, with a covered layer of shape and linear strokes all over his head. 
  • The frontal plane is large, with bulging eyeballs, half-closed eyes, and a round face and cheeks, unlike representations from other parts of India. 
  • The earlobes, in particular, are extended. 
  • The figures from the Gandhara region have a certain element of heft to them. 
  • Head of the Buddha from Taxila 
  • The form is treated with linearity, and the contours are sharp. 
  • The artwork is highly expressive and the surface is nice. 
  • The centre of attraction is the manifestation of tranquility. 
  • Face modelling improves naturalism and three-dimensionality. 
  • Gandhara style is characterised by the incorporation of Acamenian, Parthian, and Bactrian elements into local tradition. 
  • The origins of Buddha representations, as well as other imagery, can be traced back to the country’s unique geopolitical circumstances. 
  • It’s also worth noting that the northwestern section of India, which is now Pakistan, has always been inhabited since prehistoric times. It was also present during the historical period. 

Buddha Head- Gandhara 

Amaravati stupa 

  • Many stupas can be found in Vengi, Andhra Pradesh, including Jagayyapetta, Amaravati, Bhattiprolu, Nagarjunakonda, and others. 
  • There is a Mahachaitya in Amaravati, as well as several statues. 
  • Amaravati stupa, like Sanchi stupa, has a pradakshina patha encased within a vedika depicting several narrative sculptures. 
  • The relief stupa sculpture slab that covers the domical stupa structure is a distinctive feature. 
  • The Amaravati stupa’s torana has vanished over time. 
  • The early phase, like Sanchi, is devoid of Buddha images, but in the later phase (2nd and 3rd CE), Buddha images are carved on the drum slabs and in a variety of other places. 
  • In this area, the sculptural form is marked by strong emotions. 
  • The sculpture composition is more intricate than Sanchi, and the bodies are represented with three bends (Tribanga). 
  • Queen Mayadevi’s Dream is also represented here. 
  • Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, and Guntapalle all have their own Buddha images. 
  • Guntapalle is a rock-cut cave in Andhra Pradesh near Eluru. 
  • Sannati is the largest stupa ever dug in Karnataka. 
  • Other Buddhist pictures of Bodhisattvas, such as Avalokiteswara, Padmapani, Vajrapani, Amitabha, and Maitreya Buddha, began to be sculpted alongside Buddha statues. 

Amaravati stupa 

Cave tradition in western India 

  • Many Buddhist caves dating back to the second century BCE have been discovered in western India. 
  • Chaitya hall with the apsidal vaulted roof (found at Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Bhaja
  • Apsidal vaulted vaulted vaulted vaulted vaulted vaulted vaulted vaulted vaulted vaulted vault (found at Thana-Nadsur
  • A quadrangular hall with a circular chamber at the back and a flat roof (found at Kondivite) 
  • A stupa is found in the back of all chaitya caves
  • Karla, Maharashtra, has the world’s largest rock-cut chaitya hall. 
  • Viharas have been discovered in all of the caverns. 
  • The vihara’s layout consists of a veranda, a hall, and cells surrounding the hall’s walls. 
  • Interior decorative themes such as chaitya arches and vedika decorations over the cave’s cell entrances can be found in many early vihara caves. 
  • Later on, a stupa was erected to the back of the vihara, and it was renamed Chaitya-Vihara. 
  • Junnar (Maharashtra) has the most cave excavations, with more than 200 caves around the town’s hills, whereas Kanheri (Mumbai) has 138 caves explored. 
  • The caves were previously thought to belong to the orthodox Buddhist faith, Theravadins, due to the lack of Buddha pictures. 
  • However, the discovery of a Konkan Maurya inscription stating the Saka era 322 (400CE) has now proven conclusively that cave activity in western India existed. 
  • Many caverns have been turned into modern Hindu sanctuaries and have become popular worship locations. 

Ajanta caves 

  • Ajanta is a well-known cave location in western India. 
  • It is situated in Maharashtra’s Aurangabad district. 
  • There are 29 caverns in total, including four chaitya caves. 
  • It is home to the enormous Chaitya-Vihara, which is adorned with sculptures and paintings (murals). 
  • Ajanta is the only surviving example of first-century BCE and fifth-century BCE painting. 
  • Some of the vihara caverns are still under construction. 
  • Varahadeva, the Prime Minister of Vakataka king Harisena; Upendragupta, the native king of the region and Harisena’s feudatory; Buddhabadra, and Mathurasena were all prominent patrons of Ajanta. 
  • Figures in the paintings are hefty, reminiscent of western Indian sculpture. 
  • Cave excavation and painting took place at the same time, and the paintings were dated after the cave excavation. 
  • The paintings’ various skin tones symbolize a multi-colored civilization. 
  • The paintings depict episodes from Buddha’s life, as well as the Jatakas and Avadanas. 
  • The locations of events in the bush and events in the palace are distinguishable. 
  • In Ajanta, images of Padmapani and Vajrapani are quite prevalent. 

Ajanta caves 

Ellora caves 

  • Ellora is another notable cave site in Aurangabad. 
  • It is 100 kilometers from Ajanta. 
  • There are 32 caves in total, including Buddhist, Brahmanical, and Jain caves. 
  • It is a one-of-a-kind art historic landmark in the country since it contains monasteries affiliated with all three religions that date from the fifth to eleventh centuries CE. 
  • There are 12 Buddhist caves with several Vajrayana Buddhist pictures. 
  • Buddhist caves are large, with single, double, and triple stories. 
  • Pillar patterns originate in Buddhist caves, and when they reach Jain caves (9th century CE), they become exceedingly ornate, with strong protrusion of the decorative elements. 
  • Shaivism is practiced in the majority of Brahmanical caves. 
  • Vishnu’s various avatars are also shown here. 
  • Kailas Leni/Kailasa Temple is the name given to Cave No.16. 
  • It is a rock-cut temple carved from a single piece of rock. 
  • It was constructed in the eighth century CE. 
  • Ravana striving to move Mount Kailash with all his power is a masterpiece of Indian sculpture. 

Ellora caves 

Elephanta caves 

  • The Elephanta Caves, which are located on Elephanta Island in Mumbai, were once a Buddhist site that was eventually taken over by the Shaivite faith. 
  • It’s from the same era as Ellora. 
  • Bagh, near Indore, MP, is another significant cave location. 
  • The Bagh cave also has murals, including one depicting a group of dancers that resembles the North Indian Garba Dance (originated in Gujarat). 
  • The tradition of rock-cut caves continued in the Deccan, with examples finding not only in Maharashtra but also in Karnataka, primarily at Badami and Aihole, and in Andhra Pradesh in the Vijayawada area, and in Tamil Nadu, primarily at Mahabalipuram, under the patronage of the Pallavas. 
  • When the country’s early history was based on collective public patronage, the post-sixth-century CE era was based more on political patronage. 
  • This is where Maheshmurti’s sculpture (Shiva in the center, Bhairava, and Uma on either side) may be found. 

Elephanta caves 

Cave tradition in Eastern India 

  • Buddhist caves have been discovered in eastern India, primarily in the coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha, similar to those found in western India. 
  • Guntapalle in the Eluru district is one of the most important places in Andhra Pradesh. 
  • Guntapalle is one of the few locations where structural stupas, viharas, and caverns have all been unearthed in one location. 
  • Rampa Yerrampalem, in addition to Guntapalle, is an important location. 
  • A massive rock-cut stupa was carved out of the hillock in Anakapalli, near Visakhapatnam, during the 4th-5th century CE. 
  • It is a remarkable location since it contains the country’s largest rock-cut stupas. 
  • The Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves in Odisha are another notable cave location. 
  • These caverns are distributed around the area and contain inscriptions from the Kaharvela Kings. 
  • The caves were intended for Jain monks, according to the inscription. 
  • Numerous single-cell excavations can be seen here. 
  • The upper half of the cell is embellished with a succession of Chaitya arches and legends that are still told in the region’s folklore. 

Early Temples 

  • While stupa construction continued, Brahmanical temples and images of gods began to be built. 
  • Myths mentioned in the Puranas were incorporated into narrative expression. 
  • Each temple housed a primary picture of a god. 
  • The temple’s shrines were divided into three types: 
  • Sandhara type: with pradakshina patha 
  • Nirandara type: does not have pradakshina patha. 
  • Sarvatobhadra type: accessible from all sides. 
  • Some major temple sites from this time period include Deogarh (UP), Eran, Nacha-kuthara, and Udayagiri near Vidisha in MP, among others. 
  • These temples are basic structures that include a veranda, a hall, and a shrine in the back. 

Deogarh temple 

  • Deogarh is a notable example ,dating from the early sixth century CE. 
  • The main shrine is erected on a rectangular pedestal, with four smaller subsidiary shrines at the four corners, in the panchayatana style of architecture (making it a total number of five shrines, hence the name, panchayatana). 
  • This curving latina or rekha-prasada kind of shikhara further indicates that this is an early example of a traditional nagara temple style. 
  • The temple displays Vishnu in many forms, it was assumed that the four ancillary shrines must have likewise held Vishnu’s avatars, and the temple was identified as a dashavatara temple. 

Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh 

Jain Temples in India 

Jain Temples in India is a site of worship for Jainists. A Jain temple is also known as a Derasar. Jain architecture is primarily limited to temples and monasteries, and Jain structures often follow the dominant style of the time and region in which they were constructed. Shikar-bandhi Jain temples and Ghar Jain temples are two types of Jain temples. A Tirtha is a Jain temple that serves as a pilgrimage destination. 

Jain Temples – Historical Perspective 

  • Religion scholars largely agree that Jainism arose in the Ganges region of eastern India during the 7th–5th centuries BCE, which was a hotbed of religious speculation and activity at the time. 
  • The earliest examples of Jain architecture can be found in the Indian rock-cut building tradition, which was initially shared with Buddhism and then with Hinduism towards the end of the classical period. 
  • At places like Udayagiri, Bava Pyara, Ellora, Aihole, Badami, and Kalugumalai, a large number of rock-cut Jain temples and monasteries coexist with those of other religions. 
  • The Ellora Caves are a late site with temples from all three religions, while older Buddhist excavations give place to later Hindu ones. 
  • Although the north Indian Solanki style has made some advances in the south during the last century or two, Jain temples in North India mainly use the north Indian nagara style, while those in South India use the dravida style. 
  • Many Jain temples may be found in India, offering insight not only into the religion and beliefs of the Jain people, but also into their many architectural styles. 
  • Their religious structures are tailored to Jain spiritual beliefs and ritual activities. There are three distinguishing characteristics of Jain religious structures. 
  • The majority are then surrounded by other structures that are part of the religious structure. 

Important Jain Temples in India 

Jain Temples Location Significance 
Ranakpur Jain Temple Rajasthan The Ranakpur Temple, built in the 15th century, is a famous Jain pilgrimage site and is often considered as an architectural symbol around the world. The four-faced Chaturmukha Temple, dedicated to Adinath, the first Jain Tirthankara, is the most significant. The entire construction is made of light-colored marble, with turrets and cupolas rising majestically from the rocky ground. 
Gomateshwara Temple Karnataka The Bahubali Temple, also known as Gomateshwara Temple, is located in the small hamlet of Shravanabelagola. The Bahubali statue is surrounded by a colossal pillared edifice with 43 carved representations of the Tirthankaras, who convey God’s teachings and are revered by Jainists. A wall decorated with carved sculptures of animals and females surrounds the enormous temple. 
Dilwara Temple Rajasthan The magnificent Jain holy edifice Dilwara Temple is noted for its flawless architecture. Vimal Shah built the temple between the 11th and 13th centuries, and the Dhokla Jain Ministers designed it brilliantly. The vast structure is divided into five sections, each of which is devoted to one of the Tirthankaras. Lord Adinath’s temple is the oldest. 
Sri Digambar Temple Delhi The temple is thought to have been built during the Mughal rule, when a Jain officer in his tent worshipped a Tirthankara idol. This drew the attention of other Jain army officers, and in 1656, a temple was built on the spot. The shrine, which includes a massive figure of Parshvanatha, the 23rd Jain Tirthankara, is dedicated to him. 
Palitana Temple Gujarat The Palitana temples were first built in the 11th century under the reign of King Kumarapala and took 900 years to complete. Between the 14th and 15th centuries, Muslim invaders destroyed it. It is dedicated to Adinath, Jainism’s first Tirthankara. 
Sonagiri Temple Madhya Pradesh For the Digambar Jain community, Sonagiri is a prominent pilgrimage place. Chandraprabha, the 8th Tirthankara, stands 11 feet tall in this temple and is meditating. 
Kulpakji Temple Telangana Kulpakji Temple, which dates back to the 10th century, is a well-known Jain pilgrimage site. Under the auspices of the Kakatiya Dynasty, this location was a popular Jain centre. This monument holds a great deal of significance for the Svetambar community. 
Dharmanath Temple Kerala Dharmanath Temple is revered all over the world for its religious significance. This holy treasure, which dates back to 1904 and is named after the 15th Tirthankara, Dharmanath, is more than 100 years old. The temple has a striking similarity to Mount Abu’s Dilwara Temples. 
Shikharji Temple Jharkhand Shikharji Temple is the site of the salvation of 20 Tirthankaras.It is located in Jharkhand’s Parasnath Hills. The ‘zenith of concentration,’ as Shikharji Temple is renowned. The temple walls are adorned with impressive murals, and ancient Sanskrit writings dating back to 1678 may be seen directly at the bottom of the main deity. 
Hanumantal Bada Jain Temple Madhya Pradesh The historic Hanumantal Jain Temple is situated atop Hanuman Taal, which was once one of Jabalpur’s most important centres. The temple, which was established in 1686, was renovated in the nineteenth century. It is said to be the country’s largest Jain temple, with 22 shrines dedicated to various deities. 
Parshvanatha Temple Madhya Pradesh The Parshvanatha Temple, built in the 10th century, is located in Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, India. Lord Adinath was the principal shrine here during the Chandela dynasty, but it is now devoted to Lord Parshvanatha. This temple, along with several other Khajuraho sites, has been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The temple has been designated as a ‘Monument of National Importance’ by the Archaeological Survey of India. 
Saavira Kambada Temple Karnataka The Saavira Kambada Temple, also known as the ‘Chandranatha Temple,’ is dedicated to Chandraprabha, the eighth Tirthankara. The magnificent Kambada Temple has seven pavilions, all of which are supported by fine granite pillars in the Vijayanagara style. 
Badami Cave Temple Karnataka Badami cave temples, which date back to the 6th century, are the epitome of ancient Indian rock-cut constructions. The complex consists of four cave temples that were constructed during Pulakesin I’s reign, but the majority of the growth occurred during the Chalukya dynasty. The original name of Badami Temple was Vatapi Badami, after the Chalukya capital, and it was considered the centrepiece of temple building. 
Ellora Jain Caves Maharashtra The caves, which were meticulously carved to perfection around the 9th century, commemorate the end of Ellora’s religious and spiritual activity. Cave 31 is a four-pillared building that houses a Mahavira idol. On both sides of the walls, carvings of Parshvanatha guarded by yaksha and the figure of Bahubali may be observed. 
Navagraha Temple Karnataka The Navagraha Jain Temple is one of India’s holiest pilgrimage sites for Jain devotees. Sri Gunadhar Maharaj oversaw the development of this sacred structure, which began in the year 2005. The temple houses a 61-foot-tall monolithic figure of Parshvanatha, which is the Jain community’s second-tallest statue after Bawangaja. 
Bawangaja Temple Madhya Pradesh It is a massive complex with eight magnificent Jain temples dating from the 12th century. An 84-foot megalithic figure of Adinath, the first Tirthankara, stands at the base of the Satpura Range, emerging from the rugged terrain. It is also said to be India’s highest Jain statue. 
Girnar Temple Gujarat The Digambara and Shwetambara Jain groups regard these temples as sacred. The spiritual importance of Mount Girnar is well-known. Lord Neminath, the 22nd Tirthankara, acquired Moksha and died at this sacred site. 
Sri Humcha Temple Karnataka Sri Humcha Temple, which has a history stretching back to the 7th century, is recognised as Devi Padmavati’s final resting place. It is one of the most popular Jain heritage centres and is home to the world’s holiest goddess shrine. Shri Jindatt, the founder of the Santhara Dynasty, erected the temple. 

Conclusion 

One of the oldest religions to have its origins in this diverse area is jainism. As a result, several Jain temples have been established around the country. These temples, on the other hand, are considerably more than just places of worship. They have architecture that is simply unrivalled in the world. The magnificent pillars, complex decorations, and carved ceilings emit an alluring allure and reflect the old period’s majesty. 

Buddhist architecture 

  • Along with Hindu art and architecture, Buddhist temple building and artwork also went on along with other religions. 
  • Ellora has Buddhist, Jain and Hindu monuments. 
  • Bodh Gaya (or Bodhgaya) 
  • Most important Buddhist site because Prince Siddhartha achieved enlightenment here to become Gautama Buddha. 
  • The Bodhi Tree is important. 
  • The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya: 
  •  
  • The first shrine situated at the base of the Bodhi tree was probably built by Emperor Ashoka. 
  • The vedika around the shrine is post-Mauryan built during 100 BC. 
  • Many sculptures in the niches in the temple belong to the Pala Period (8th century CE). 
  • The temple itself was constructed during the colonial period. 
  • It is a 7th-century design. It is neither nagara or Dravida in style. 
  • Nalanda University 
  • It was a monastic university. 
  • It is a Mahavihara since it is a complex of many monasteries. 
  • Only a small portion of the place has been studied as most of it lies buried under present civilisation and impossible to excavate. 
  • The records of the Chinese traveller Xuan Zang (Hsuan-Tsang) gives a huge amount of information about Nalanda. 
  • As per the records, the foundation of the learning centre was laid down by Kumaragupta I, the Gupta king in the 5th century CE. Later kings added to the original centre. 
  • Evidence for all three Buddhist doctrines of Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana taught here. 
  • Monks came from China, Tibet and Central Asia in the north; and from Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, and other countries in Southeast Asia. 
  • Nalanda was a centre for art production and Buddhist sculptures and manuscripts were taken from here by monks to their countries. So, art in Nalanda had a profound impact on art in all the Buddhist countries. 
  • The Nalanda School of sculpture was influenced by Buddhist Gupta art of Sarnath, the local Bihar tradition and Central India. This synthesis emerged during the 9th century. 
  • Features of Nalanda School of sculpture
  • Sculptures have an ordered appearance with little effect of crowding. 
  • They are depicted in three-dimensional forms. 
  • Delicate ornamentations. 
  • Back slabs of the sculptures are detailed. 
  • Nalanda bronzes: dating from the 7th and 8th centuries to the 12th century; outnumber the metal images from entire eastern India. 
  • Initially depict Mahayana Buddhist deities like standing Buddhas, bodhisattvas like Manjusri Kumara, Naga-Nagarjuna and Avalokiteshvara seated on a lotus. 
  • In the late 11th and 12th centuries, Nalanda became an important tantric centre. Then, Vajrayana deities dominated such Vajrasharada (a form of Saraswati), Avalokiteshvara, Khasarpana, etc. 
  • Many Brahmanical images have also been found at Nalanda. Many such images are still worshipped at nearby villages. 
  • Buddhist sites: Sirpur in Chhattisgarh (550 – 800 CE); Lalitagiri, Vajragiri and Ratnagiri in Odisha. 
  • Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu was also a Buddhist centre until the Chola Period. A reason could be that it was a port-town and there were trade activities with Sri Lanka which was and continues to be predominantly Buddhist. 

Gupta Architecture 

Gupta architecture is a representation of the people’s strong religious convictions during the time. The “Golden Period of Indian Architecture” is typically referred to as the beginning of the Gupta Empire in the 4th century A.D. While the older Gupta monarchs were Buddhists who preserved Buddhist architectural traditions, temple building rose to prominence under the patronage of the later Gupta rulers who were Hindus. Similarly, during the Gupta period, Buddhist and Jain art achieved their pinnacle. 

Gupta Architecture 

  • The beginning of the Gupta Empire in the 4th century A.D. is considered the “Golden Period of Indian Architecture.” 
  • Temple construction gained prominence under the sponsorship of the later Gupta rulers, who were Hindus. 
  • While the early Gupta kings were Buddhists who conserved Buddhist architectural traditions, temple building rose to prominence under the patronage of the later Gupta rulers, who were Hindus. 
  • The Gupta kings were Brahmanical rulers, especially in the later phases. They, on the other hand, displayed exceptional tolerance for all other religions. 
  • Vishnu was worshipped in the northern and central parts of India, Shiva in the southern section, and Shakti in the eastern part of India, as well as on the Malabar coast or in the south-west. 

Cave Architecture 

  • The architectural development of caves remained consistent during the Gupta period. 
  • The utilisation of mural paintings on the cave walls, on the other hand, became an extra element. 
  • The caves of Ajanta and Ellora have some of the best examples of mural art. 
  • Ajanta is a group of rock-cut caves near Aurangabad, Maharashtra, amid the Sahyadri ranges on the Waghora River. 
  • There are 29 caves in all, 25 of which were utilised as Viharas (residence caves) and 4 of which were used as Chaitya (prayer halls). 
  • Between 200 B.C. and 650 A.D the caves were constructed. 
  • The Buddhist monks inscribed the Ajanta caves under the patronage of the Vakataka rulers, one of them was Harishena. 
  • The figures in these caves were painted with frescoes and exhibited a high level of naturalism. The colours were created from local plants and minerals. 
  • The paintings’ outlines were painted in red, and then the insides were painted. 
  • The absence of blue in the paintings is one of the most remarkable elements. 

Ajanta caves 

  • Another famous cave architecture site is Ellora Caves. 
  • It is almost 100 kilometres from the Ajanta caves in Maharashtra’s Sahyadri hills. It consists of 34 caves, 17 of which are Brahmanical, 12 Buddhist, and 5 Jain. 
  • These caves were built by numerous guilds from Vidarbha, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu between the 5th and 11th centuries A.D. (they are newer than the Ajanta Caves). 
  • As a result, in terms of topic and architectural styles, the caves represent a natural diversity. 

Ellora caves 

  • A set of nine Buddhist caves formed around the 6th century A.D. on the bank of the Bagh river in Madhya Pradesh. 
  • It has a similar architectural style to the Ajanta caves. 

Bagh caves 

  • These are Buddhist caves located in Gujarat’s Junagadh region. Although there are no caves here, three separate places can be located. 
  • Khapra Kodiya, Baba Pyare, and Uparkot are the three sites found. 
  • The presence of a 30-50 ft high fortress known as “Upar Kot” in front of the prayer hall is a distinctive feature of the Junagadh caves. 

Junagadh caves 

  • Pandav Leni” refers to a series of 24 Buddhist caves in Nasik. They were created in the first century A.D. during the Hinayana period. 
  • Later, though, the Mahayana sect’s impact may be seen in these caves. 
  • His presence is expressed in the Hinayana sect through the usage of motifs and symbols such as the throne and footprints. 
  • Later on, Buddha idols were sculpted inside these caves, indicating Mahayana Buddhism’s impact. 
  • The site also shows a superb water management system, as evidenced by the presence of water tanks carved out of solid rock. 

Nasik Caves 

  • It is also known as Montperir Caves, located in Borivali, near Mumbai, and was built as a Brahmanical cave during the late Gupta dynasty. 
  • It was later transformed into a Christian cave, however. 
  • Sculptures of Natraja, Sada Shiva, and Ardhanarishwara can be seen among the site’s ruins. 
  • Above the cave, precincts are the church and its graveyard. 

Mandapeshwar Caves 

  • Caves of Udayagiri (not to be confused with Odisha’s Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves). It’s in Madhya Pradesh’s Vidisha district. 
  • It was built under the patronage of Chandragupta II in the early fifth century AD and is known for its numerous sculptures on the hill walls. 
  • Varaha, or Vishnu’s Boar incarnation, is a renowned sculpture. 
  • One of the earliest Hindu sculptures may be found in the caverns. 

Udaygiri Caves 

Stupas 

  • The development of stupas slowed during the Gupta period. 
  • However, the Dhamek stupa in Sarnath, near Varanasi, is an excellent example of a stupa built during this time. 

Dhamek Stupa 

  • The Dhamek Stupa is a huge stupa in Sarnath. 
  • After reaching enlightenment, the Buddha is claimed to have given his first sermon to his first five students, led by Kaundinya, revealing his Eightfold Path leading to nirvana at the Dhamek Stupa. 

Dhamek Stupa 

Sculptures 

  • Sarnath School of Sculpture, which sprang up near Sarnath, was added to the list. 
  • Many Buddha pictures in Sarnath have plain translucent drapery covering both shoulders and a sparsely ornamented halo around the head, whereas the Mathura Buddha images retain the folds of the drapery and the halo around the head is lavishly embellished. 
  • Sultanganj Buddha is a notable example (7.5ft in height). 

Temple Architecture 

  • The beginning of Indian temple architecture may be traced back to the Gupta dynasty. 
  • There were manuals created on how to build temples. 
  • The Gupta temples were divided into five categories: 
  1. Kankali Devi temple in Tigawa and the Vishnu Varaha temples in Eran are examples of square buildings with flat roofs and shallow pillared porches. 
  • For the first time, the sanctum or cella (garbhagriha) of a temple with a single entrance and a porch (Mandapa) appears. 

Kankali Devi Temple 

  1.  An extension of the previous form with the addition of an ambulatory (pradakshina) surrounding the shrine, often a second level; 
  • Examples include the Shiva temple in Bhumara, and the ladkhan at Aihole
  • Parvati temple in Nachna Kuthara is another notable example. 

Shiva Temple 

  1. The Dashavatara temple (Deogarh Jhansi) and the brick temple at Bhitargaon Kanpur are famous examples of the square temple with a low and squat tower (shikhara) above; pillared approach, a high platform at the base. 
  • The “Curvilinear tower,” or “Shikhara,” was the most remarkable achievement of this stage. 
  • Temple construction in the “Nagara Style” is regarded to be the third stage’s triumph. 

Dashavatara Temple 

  1. The Kapoteswara temple in Cezarla (Krishna district) is a rectangular temple with an apsidal back and barrel-vaulted roof above. 

Kapoteswara Temple 

  1. Circular temples with shallow rectangular projections on the four cardinal faces; the Maniyar Math shrine in Rajgir, Bihar, is the sole monument that exemplifies the form. 

Maniyar Math Shrine In Rajgir 

Conclusion 

Between 320 to 550 CE, the Gupta Empire ruled over northern, central, and southern India. The achievements in the arts, architecture, sciences, religion, and philosophy are well-known during this time period. Chandragupta I (320–335 CE) began the Gupta Empire’s rapid development and quickly established himself as the empire’s first autonomous ruler. It signalled the end of 500 centuries of regional power dominance and the resulting unrest, which began with the Mauryas’ fall. It marked the start of a period of overall wealth and expansion that lasted for the following two and a half centuries and was known as India’s Golden Age. 

Medieval School of Sculpture 

  • Instead of the classical dignity, sobriety and simplicity, the sculpture is now more and more tending towards ornamentation, creating highly ornate art objects, with strange and unusual imaginary creatures, such as half-human, half monsters. 
  • The characteristic of this new form of style of art is the difference with classical art in attitude, if not in skill and aptitude. Loveliness and idealization are still the artist’s passion as they were for artists in the early classical period, but the love of the ornate, decorative details is now dominant over classic simplicity. 
  • Examples of this form of sculptures during this time: 
  1. One of the distinguishing monuments of sculpture during this time is the magnificent prayer hall or Chaitya, at Karle in the Poona district. 
  1. Figure of Vrikshika, or a celestial damsel, from Gyraspur, in Gwalior, standing in a gracefully flexed pose, against a tree. 

Pallavas Sculpture 

  • An artistic movement of great importance flourished under the aegis of the Pallava rulers of Kanchi 
  • Some of the outstanding sculptures that are credited to their patronage are the Mahishasurmardini in relief, Girigovardhana panel, Arjuna’s penanceor the Descent of the Ganga, Trivikrama Vishnu, Gajalakshmi and Anatasayanam. 
  • In the annals of Indian art, there is perhaps a no better example of the representation of the Elephant than that in the Arjuna’s penance scene. The celestial world, the temporal world as well as the animal world has been shown with masterly skill. 
  • In all these examples the vigor of the composition is unique. The Pallava style concerns itself with a tall and slender physiognomical form
  • The thin and elongated limbs emphasize the tallness of the figure
  • The female figures are much lighter in appearance, with their slender waists, narrow chests and shoulders, smaller breasts, sparse ornaments and garments and generally submissive attitude. The figure sculpture of the Pallavas is natural in pose and modeling. 
  • A great masterpiece is the carving from Mahabalipuram showing the great goddess Durga engaged in a fierce battle with the buffalo headed demon aided by their respective armies. Riding on her lion she is rushing at the powerful demon with great courage. He is moving away, yet watching for a moment to attack. 
  • Later Pallava sculpture shows greater details of workmanship, lighter anatomy and more developed artistic finishing. 

Rashtrakutas Sculpture 

  • In the middle of the 8th century, the Rashtrakutas wrested power from the Chalukyas. 
  • They created the greatest wonder of medieval Indian art in their Kailasa temple at Ellora. 
  • Quarried out of a hill and solid rocks, it is sculptured on a grand scale. The bold and magnificent carving in this temple shows the Rashtrakuta style of tall and powerfully built figures, reflecting spiritual and physical poise. 
  • The beautiful architectural rock sculpture from Cave No.29 at Ellora shows the marriage of Siva and Parvati. 
  • Siva holding the hand of the bashful Parvati occupies the centre of the composition. To the right Brahma, the creator is actively engaged in stirring up the flames of the sacred fire. The dignified grace of the divine couple and the gentle solemnity of the occasion have been portrayed by the sculptor with masterly skill. 
  • Another magnificent sculpture at Ellora is a panel depicting Ravana shaking Mount Kailasa.  
  • The cave shrine at Elephanta is another great monument of the Rashtrakutas, which contains the famous Mahishamurti. 
  • The three heads emanating from one and the same body represent three different aspects of Lord Shiva. The central face with a calm and dignified appearance shows him as the creator, the one on the left, with a severe look, portrays him as the destroyer and the third, to the right, with a calm and pacific expression. 

Cholas Sculpture 

  • The Cholas who succeeded the Pallavas and ruled over South India from the 9th to 13th centuries A.D. created the great temples at Tanjavur, Gangai Kondo Cholapuram, Darasurama, which are a veritable treasure house of their art. 
  • At the Brihadisvara temple at Tanjavur which is the most mature and majestic of the Chola temples, sculpture, there has attained a new maturity which is evident in the gracefully modeled contours of the figures, their flexed poses, delicate ornamentation, pleasing faces and certain freshness, all of which add charm to the work. Chola art not only influenced the art of Ceylon, but it travelled as far away as Java and Sumatra 
  • A good example of Chola craftsmanship in the 11th century is the relief carving of Siva as The irate god is engaged in a vigorous dance of fierce ecstasy after having killed the elephant demon, who has given so much trouble to the rishis and his devotees. 
  • The later phase of Chola art, in the 13th century, is illustrated by the sculpture showing Bhudevi or the earth goddess as the younger consort of Vishnu. She stands in a gracefully flexed attitude on a lotus base holding a lily in her right hand, while the left arm hangs along her side in 
  • Bronze sculpture tradition under the Cholas 
  •  
  1. The art reached a high stage of development during this time 
  1. The sculptors work during this time are famous for their elegance, sensitive modeling, and balanced tension 
  1. Realism and attention to finer details reached its utmost perfection during this time. Ex: Clear demarcation of the areas of the body, such as the creases between the torso and the stomach, around the navel, sharp edges along the tibiae, a pointed nose, facial expressions are one of the most noticeable features of this time (Nataraja image) 

Chandelas Sculpture 

  • The Chandellas, who ruled from 950 to 1100 A.D., constructed towering temples in central India, like the Kandariya Mahadev temple at Khajuraho.These were sculpted with human representations of endless variety. The sculptor here preferred the slender taller figures with a considerable accentuation of linear details. 
  • The art of Khajuraho is a world of beauty. The lovers locked in an embrace which is approximately carved, display a throbbing passion. Varying moods are brought into relief by a slight change in the smile, a little difference in expression and in the pose. 
  • The sculptures of Khajuraho are such great masterpieces of Indian sculptural art that they can be admired both individually as well as cumulatively. 

Palas Sculpture 

  • Great impetus was given to art under the reign of Pala rulers in Bihar and Bengal during the period 730 to 1110 A.D. 
  • They were Buddhist by faith. They greatly encouraged centres of learning like Nalanda and Vikramasila, where the stupas and monasteries gave ample scope for the sculptor’s expression of an art which found stimulus in religion. 
  • During this period art reached technical perfection. The Pala Style is marked by slim and graceful figures, elaborate jewellery and conventional decoration
  • Their sculptures from Bihar are somewhat thick set and heavier in their general proportions of limbs than those from Bengal. The Pala rulers had intimate relations with Java which are evident in- Hindu-Javanese sculpture, and painting of Nepal, Kashmir, Burma and Thailand. 
  • Some amount of stylization is noticed in the later phase of Pala art, but the tradition is continued under the Sena rulers in the 12th century until the Islamic rulers overran the country. 
  • An excellent specimen from Mahanad in West Bengal is this lovely figure of the personified river goddess Ganga.She stands gracefully under a tree, Kalpataru, on a lotus, holding a water-vessel in her hand, symbolizing prosperity and plenty. The ends of her scarf draped around the arms, trail on either side. She is adorned with profuse jewellery and wears a lower garment reaching to the ankles. The figure is expressive and the workmanship is of a high order. 

Eastern Gangas Sculpture 

  • The kings of the Eastern Ganga dynasty who held sway in Odisha from the 7th to the 13th centuries have left monumental temples at Bhubaneswar, Puri, and Konarak which are richly embellished with a wealth of sculptures. 
  • By the middle of the 9th century A.D. especially in Odisha, there developed a school of sculpture which, among other things, took sensuous delight in the lovely forms of women. There are numerous sculptures of beautiful female figures on the face of the walls. 
  • The Odisha templehas many such representations of young and charming creatures with seductive smiles, luxurious hair full of jewellery etc 
  • Similar lovely women are seen to appear everywhere as if growing out of trees and creepers, themselves like beautiful flowers and vines, often holding on to branches of trees and standing on floral ornaments. They are nymphs, and spirits that live in trees and shrubs and animate them. 
  • They are shown decorating the walls and temples in Odisha, which become vast forests of ornamentation, crowded with flowers, scrolls and elegant geometric design. Most of these lovely ladies stand in various dance poses 
  • The famous temple at Konark was built by Narasimhavarmanin the middle of the 12th century and dedicated to Surya or the sun god. It has been conceived as a huge stone chariot on immense wheels, dragged by seven rearing horses. Its presiding deity, the sun-god as seen here, is depicted in the typical north Indian manner, wearing boots, chain-mail armor, holding a lotus in each hand. He is riding a chariot driven by seven horses. On each side are his two wives, Chhaya and Suvarchasa, and the attendant’s Danda and Pingla. 
  • On the plinth of the Jagmohana of the temple, at a height of about 50 feet from the ground, are installed colossal celestial musicians facing in all directions, playing on different musical instruments. These celestial maidens are shown playing the Veena. The massive proportions and powerful modeling of the figure, and a gentle smile on her face, express a sense of harmonious delight. 
  • Another celestial maiden, similar to the Veena player, is this drummer. They are all in pink coloured sandstone of a rough texture. These figures are of colossal proportions yet very elegantly and beautifully carved. 
  • Narasimha, the great builder of the Konarak templeis shown here on a swing in his harem, surrounded by beautiful women and listening to music. 
  • Another scene shows him appreciating literature in an assembly of poets patronized by him. 
  • Yet another shows his tolerance for faiths by presenting him before Siva, Jagannath and Durga. There are several other similar representations of his life, and Konarak, with its rich sculpture, may be considered a storehouse of 13th-century culture in Odisha. 
  • The image of Surya from the Sun Temple at Konarak drawn by seven rearing horses, one of which fully caparisoned, is of monumental proportions. 
  • The Odisha artist without giving up the conventional lines of grace and vigor produced images that were faultless in the perfection of their form and vitality. 
  • The examples of this school have sensuous charm and beauty of form.The Mithuna, or a pair of amorous lovers, glows with the exuberance characteristic of Odisha art. They have the eternal smile of lovers who are absorbed in each other. In point of time as well as technique, Odisha art culminates in the famous Sun-temple at Konarak. 

 
Marble sculptures in Western India 

  • The traditions of the marble sculpture of Gujarat in Western India are seen in the profusion of intricately carved sculptures that decorate the Jain temples at Mount Abu, Girnar and Palitana. 
  • The beautiful image of the four-armed Vishnu, the Hindu god of preservation, was fashioned in the 13th century A.D. under the characteristic attributes that is the mace, the discus and conch­-shell. The hand which hold the lotus is now lost. 
  • The weapons are again shown as personified attendant figures on the base. On either side are seen the conventional decorative motifs, and the miniature image of Brahma and Siva, within rectangular niches. 
  • The Dilwara temples at Mount Abuare the outstanding productions of the western school in the Jain tradition. They are not monuments of architecture, but are sculptural masterpieces, placed one upon the other to fashion one of the sculptural wonders of the world. The ceiling of the Dilwara temple, especially, is one of the world’s masterpieces of intricate sculptural carvings. 

Hoysalas Sculpture 

  • A splendid example of the Hoysala sculptural art is portrayed in the carving showing Lord Krishna holding aloft the mountain Govardhana to save the inhabitants of Gokul from the wrath of Indra, who let loose torrential rains to teach them a lesson for their insolence, in paying homage to Mount Govardhana instead of worshipping him. The Mountain with its forest and animal kingdom is held aloft by the youthful Krishna on his left hand, sheltering the entire population of Gokul, including the cows. 
  • The artist takes delight no more in the depiction of the beauty of the handsome male or the loveliness of the female body. 
  • The human body almost completely disappears under a fantastic mass of decoration and ornamentation which become more important than the human figure. 
  • In the sculpture of the period showing a woman holding a fly-whisk and other figures, we come to the almost total disappearance of the body. 
  • The temples they built at Halebidu and Belur look like lacework in stone.The decoration is elaborate, the emphasis being more on ornamentation than movement or the grace of the human body. 
  • Hoysala sculptures are somewhat squat and short, highly embellished, or almost over-loaded with ornamentation, but yet are pleasing to behold. 

Vijayanagara Empire Sculpture 

  • The last great Hindu Kingdom in South India was Vijayanagara. During this regime, from circa 1336 to 1565 A.D. several beautiful temples were erected at places like Tadpatri, Hampi, Kanchipuram, etc. 
  • Carving in these temples show the Chola and Chalukyan art traditions. During this period representations in narrative forms of the Ramayana and Krishna, Bal Lila became favorite themes. 
  • The Vijayanagara emperors caused excellent portraits to be carved by the sculptors to immortalize them in the vicinity of their favorite deities. 
  • One such fine example is of Krishnadevarayaat one of the Gopuras at Chidambaram. The final flicker of this, however, is seen in the amazingly virile sculpture in titanic proportions carved by the sculptors of Tirumylnayak, and the Gopuram and the courts of Meenakshi temple at Madurai. 
  • Bronze sculpture tradition during Vijayanagara rule 
  •  
  1. During the Vijayanagar period (1336–1565) the ornamentation tended to become more elaborate, interfering with the smooth rhythm of the body, and the postures became more rigid. 
  1. The sculptors in this period have combined the likeness of the facial features with certain elements of idealization. The idealization is further observed in the manner the physical body is modeled to appear imposing as well as graceful. Ex: life-size standing portrait statues of Krishnadevaraya found at Tiruppathi 

 
Sculpture of Nayakas of Madurai and Thanjavur 

  • The 17th century was a great period of titanic work under the Nayaka of Madurai and Tanjavur. 
  • During this period the animal motif with fantastic detail as seen in the outstanding sculpture at Srirangam temple in Trichinapallymay be seen. 
  • Though, stylized, this art is full of vitality. 
  • A pair of rampant, furious horses whose heads support the pillars, are carved with great skill and vigor. The riders are shown in realistic poses trying to control them. Each sculpture is realistic though the concept is fantastic. 

Modern Indian Sculptors 

The modernism in Indian sculpture has come via the transition from academism of the 20th century to well-defined non-objectivism of recent times. In early 20th century, the Indian sculpture adapted to the western academic art traditions and thus, the artists who trained in the academic realist style at British art schools worked on secular subjects. 

This was a significant departure from the ancient and medieval norms, where the artists worked on myths and deities. This was the phase of intense and exaggerated realism in Indian sculpture. Many of the famous sculptors were trained painters and vice versa. 

This phase continued with more and more developments added by important sculptors such as D.P Roy Chowdhury, Fanindranath Bose and V. P. Karmarkar. 

The most important turning point in the modern Indian sculpture was in the form of works by Ramkinkar Baij in 1940s and 1950s.  Baij looked afresh at both western and traditional Indian norms, and mixed them up in modern context. He not only was able to input the indigenous content in the sculptures but also experimented with unconventional material such as concrete, gravel and cement. The rural landscape and tribal communities were his subjects. 

The 1950s onward, a variety of experiments have been done in the Indian sculpting. This includes experiments with wood, stone and unusual material such as hemp. 

The following section deals with the contribution of important modern sculptors of India. 

D.P Roy Chowdhury 

D.P Roy Chowdhury (1899-1975) was basically a realistic artist, well known for his monumental sculptures installed in the public spaces. He was also a painter from the Bengal School of art, trained under Abhanindranath Tagore. In sculpture he was inspired by the Impressionist works of the modern Western sculpture, Auguste Rodin (French). Roy Chowdhury’s forte was casting rather than carving. He is known for portraits of Mahatma Gandhi and Swami Vivekananda, his notable sculptures are Triumph of Labour (statue located at Marina beach Chennai) and Martyrs’ Memorial (Bhopal). 

Fanindranath Bose (1888 – 1926) 

Fanindranath Bose lived only for 37 years, yet has left a profound impact on the New Sculpture, though he remains to be an unsung hero. He is best known for reproducing the human body in bronze. 

He was trained at Calcutta School of Art before moving to Europe to fulfil his ambition to become a sculptor. He got enrolled at the Board of Manufacturers School of Edinburgh and married a Scottish woman and settled in Edinburgh. He was recruited by Sayaji Rao III Gaekwad, Maharaja of Baroda, to teach briefly at Baroda College whilst he was making eight sculptures for the Gaekwad’s Laxmi Vilas Palace and two for Baroda Gallery. Bose turned down an invitation to work on the Victoria Memorial in Calcutta for unknown reasons. Important works are: Boy in Pain, Hunter, The Sahdu, The snake charmer, An Indian peasant girl, St John the Baptist. 

V. P. Karmarkar 

Vinayak Pandurang Karmarkar (1891-1966) was born in Raigad district in the year 1891.His father used to make Ganesh idols. Karmarkar was interested in drawing and get his first sculpture lessons at home from his father. That time, the district collector Otto Rothfield saw a drawing of Shivaji made by Karmarkar and realized his talent. His efforts were able to get Karmarkar enrolled in the JJ School of Arts. He was later trained at Calcutta School. He aslo started his own studio in Kolkata for some period but had to return back to Bombay due to lack of patronage over there. After that, he was taken up by the Maharastran nationalists who wished to commemorate the nationalist icon Chatrapati Shivaji with a life size equestrian statue. He sculpted the bronze statue of King Shivaji which weighs 8 tons and is 13.5 feet high. This statue is situated at the Military preparatory school in Pune. He did some excellent work by making sculptures of Gopalkrishna Gokhale, Acharya Kriplani and Matsyagandha. Later he studied at the London Royal Academy. He was awarded the Padmashri by the Indian government in 1962. 

Ramkinkar Baij 

Ramkinker Baij (1906-1980), was a powerful modern painter and sculptor, best known for his magnum opus “Santhal Family” sculpture. Born in the Bankura District of West Bengal, Baij was a son of a village masseuse and barber. He came to Santiniketan on account of the skilful posters he painted during the non-cooperation movement. Here, he became another disciple of Nand Lal Bose, and then became one of the pioneers of modern Indian sculpture. He joined the Visva-Bharati University at Santiniketan as a fine arts student. At Santiniketan, under the guidance of Nandalal Bose, his artistic skills and intellectual horizons acquired new depth and complexity. 

Initially, he started making sculptures which were innovative in subject matter and personal in style. 

Santhal Family 

His first magnum opus in this genre was the Santal Family done in 1938. Santhal Family is widely considered to be the first public Modernist sculpture in India. This sculpture depicts a mother, father, child and dog from the Santhal tribe, carrying their few possessions with them to a new life.  It was made of cement cast and laterite pebbles. 

The artistic creations of Ramkinkar Baij have been inspired by the lifestyles of rural dalit or Adivasi communities. Through his sculptures, he represented the tribal peasants of the region, giving the figures iconic presence and dignified grace that was so far limited to the images of Gods and Rulers. 

He took a great interest in human figures, body language, and in the general human drama. His main points of reference were modern western art and pre and post-classical Indian art. Regarding his work, he said:  “I do not know whether what I am doing is modern or not, but it is based on my experience.” 

Yaksha and Yakshini 

Another famous work of Ramkinkar Baij was the Yaksha and Yakshini sculpture at the gates of RBI building in New Delhi. The art form of the male ‘Yaksha’ was drawn from the statue of the ‘Parkham Yaksha’ in the Mathura museum and the art form of the female Yakshini was derived from “Bisnagar Yakshini” from the Calcutta Museum. 

Famine 

The sculpture Famine was invariably triggered by the Bengal Famine of 1943, a happening that made him enter a pictorial space from the real. 

Gandhi Dandi March 

Despite its name, the sculpture depicts Gandhi at Noakhali in 1947. The skull at his foot stands for the violence he walked into. The larger version of the work executed in concrete is at Santiniketan. This is the original model and is from the NGMA collection. 

Mill Call 

Mill Call installed in Santiniketan, depicts a working-class family setting off for work on hearing the mill siren. It was done in concrete and laterite pebbles: Baij would throw the concrete inside the armature, a technique he used for the last time in this sculpture. 

Paintings 

His paintings too take on expressionist dimensions like his sculptures, which are filled with force and vitality. 

Legacy and awards 

There is a book called ‘Dekhi Nai Fire’ based on Baij’s life and work, written by Samaresh basu. In 1975, Ritwik Ghatak wisely made a documentary on Baij named ‘Ramkinkar’ where he featured him as a political icon. He was awarded Deshikottom by Visva-Bharati University. In 1970, he was honoured with Padma Bhushan by the Government of India. He died in 1980. 

Sankho Chaudhuri 

Sankho Chaudhuri was a student of Ramkinkar Baij. He began close to cubism and then was influenced by Istvan Beothy. His themes have included the female figure and wildlife. Chaudhuri was best known for carving his pieces out of wood and stone or moulding in metal simple and austere forms mostly intertwined with each other or broken into angles. 

These often had a sweeping loftiness and smooth and polished surfaces. Besides a variety of wood, he used marble, both black and white and with zebra stripes, and limestone, which were characterised by a sheen. 

He was worked in a wide range of media, and has produced both large-scale reliefs and mobiles. He expired in the year 2006. In 1956, he received the National Award by Lalit Kala Akademi. He also became the Padma shri recipient in the year 1971. He became the Fellow of Lalit Kala Akademi in 1982. He was delivered the Desikottama by Viswa Bharati University in 1988.  In 2000-02, he received the Kali Das Samman. 

Bhakti  Movements 

The Bhakti Movement, an important component of mediaeval India’s cultural history, was a subtle revolution in society brought about by a galaxy of socio-religious reformers. It refers to the theistic devotional trend that originated in India during the mediaeval period and later altered society. The Bhakti movement empowered those at the bottom of Indian society and fueled the growth of vernacular literature. 

Bhakti Movement – Origin 

  • The Bhakti movement began in the southern portions of India, particularly Tamil Nadu, between the 7th and 12th centuries, and gradually spread to the northern belt by the end of the 15th century. 
  • In South India, there were two major groups of Bhakti saints: Nayanars (Shiva Devotees) and Alvars (Vishnu Devotees), who preached devotion to God as a way of salvation while rejecting the austerities preached by Buddhism and Jainism. The majority of their poems were on the devotional relationship between the devotee and God. 
  • They spoke and wrote in vernaculars such as Tamil and Telugu so that ordinary people could read and recite them. 
  • In Bhakti tradition, the presence of a priest was not essential. This greatly increased the popularity of their movement. 
  • The term ‘Bhakti’ is derived from the Sanskrit word “bhaj,” which means to share, participate in, or be a part of. Unlike sensual love, Bhakti is spiritual and refers to total devotion. 
  • Bhaktism arose as a result of several reasons. Hinduism had grown exceedingly ceremonial, and the caste system had taken hold. 
  • Both Jainism and Buddhism advocated rigorous asceticism and were plagued by a lack of support. 
  • The Sufi movement, on the other hand, was gaining popularity due to its egalitarian beliefs and ease of prayer. People were looking for a way to satisfy their emotional and spiritual requirements. 
  • These reasons contributed to the rise and expansion of the Bhakti tradition within Hinduism. Bhakti saints opposed established religion and advocated for several changes. 

The two Schools of Bhakti 

  • The Bhakti saints were separated into two schools based on how they perceived God. One school of thought envisioned God as formless, devoid of traits or qualities. The Nirguna School of Philosophy is the name of this school of thought. 
  • The Saguna School, on the other hand, believed that God had a particular form, character, and positive attributes and that the god shows himself in incarnations such as Rama and Krishna. 
Nirguna School Saguna School 
Nirguna symbolised the poet-saints who exalted God apart from all qualities or forms. They’re also referred to as Monotheistic Bhakti saints. Saguna represented poet-saints who wrote poetry glorifying a god based on qualities or form. 
Nirguna’s main proponents were Nanak and Kabir. The prominent proponents of Saguna were Tulsidas, Chaitanya, Surdas, and Meera. 
The Nirguna poet-saints condemned Brahmin supremacy and all caste-based traditions, as well as the practice of idolatry. The Saguna poets favoured Brahmin domination and defended the caste system. 
They valued personal encounters with god, and although calling their deity by various names and titles, their god was formless, everlasting, non-incarnate, and ineffable. They preached a religion of submission and simple confidence in a personal god, while also encouraging the worship of idols. 
Their views appeared to be a fusion of three traditions: the Vaishnava concept of Bhakti, the Nanpanthi movement, and Sufism. Thus, despite adopting the concept of Bhakti from Vaishnavism, they gave it a Nirguna emphasis. They recognise the spiritual validity of the Vedas as well as the need for a human Guru to act as a bridge between God and his devotees. 

Reasons for the rise of the Bhakti movement 

  • Evils in Hindu Culture: Hindu society was riddled with social oddities such as caste rigidity, irrelevant rituals and religious practises, blind faiths, and social dogmas. 
  • Common men, in general, had formed an aversion to these societal problems and needed a liberal form of religion in which they could identify with basic religious rituals. 
  • Religion’s complexity: The great philosophy of the Vedas and Upanishads was extremely difficult for the common people to understand. 
  • They desired a simple form of worship, as well as simple religious, practices and social conventions. 
  • Bhakti marga was an alternative—a simple way of devotion to obtain redemption from worldly existence. 

Bhakti Movement – Significance 

  • The Bhakti movement was founded on monotheistic ideas and largely condemned idol worship. 
  • The Bhakti movement was founded on the belief that the best way to connect with God is through love and worship, rather than through rituals or religious rites. 
  • The Bhakti reformers advocated escape from the cycle of life and death, and that salvation could only be obtained through intense devotion and confidence in God. 
  • They emphasised the significance of self-surrender in gaining God’s happiness and grace, as well as the value of Gurus who served as mentors and preceptors. 
  • They taught the Universal brotherhood principle. 
  • They were opposed to ceremonies, pilgrimages, and fasting. They were vehemently opposed to the caste system, which segregated people based on their birth. 
  • They also emphasised the singing of hymns with profound devotion, and without regard for any language as sacred, they created lyrics in common people’s languages. 

Textual Influences of Bhakti Movement 

  • Bhakti is mentioned in ancient Indian scriptures dating back to the first millennium BCE, including the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, the Katha Upanishad, and the Bhagavad Gita
  • Apart from ‘GyanMarg’ and ‘Karma Marg,’ the Bhagavad Gita discusses ‘Bhakti’ as a means of attaining salvation. 
  • ‘Bhakti’ is also mentioned in the sutras. It is stated especially in the Narada Sutra and the Sandilya Sutra. 

Bhakti Movement in South India 

  • Between the seventh and twelfth centuries CE, the popular Bhakti movement grew throughout south India. 
  • It was founded on religious equality as well as broad social engagement. 
  • The Shivaite Nayannars and Vaishnavaite Alvars, who propagated the Bhakti cult under the Pallavas, Pandyas, and Cholas, ignored the Jains’ and Buddhists’ austerities. 
  • They proclaimed that personal commitment to God was the only way to salvation. 
  • They ignored the rigidities of the caste system and used local languages to spread the message of love and personal devotion to God throughout South India. 

Alwars 

  • The Alvars, which means “those steeped in God,” were Vaishnava poet-saints who travelled around singing praises to Vishnu or his avatar Krishna. 
  • They were Vaishnavists who worshipped Vishnu or Krishna as the Supreme Being. 
  • There were 12 Alwars in total. 
  • They wrote hymns in honour of Vishnu and his avatars, which were collected in the Divya Prabandha. 
  • They also lauded the ‘Divya Deshams,’ which allude to the 108 Vaishnavite deities’ abodes. 
  • Andal is the only female Alwar saint known as the ‘Meera of the South.’ 

Nayannars 

  • They began as a congregation of 63 Tamil saints dedicated to Lord Shiva. The specifics of the saints’ life are documented in the text ‘Tevaram,’ commonly known as the Dravida Veda. 
  • On the request of Chola ruler Raja Raja I, his priest began compiling the Nayyanar hymns into a series of volumes known as ‘Tirumurai.’ The Nayyannars come from a wide range of backgrounds. 
  • Brahmins and nobility were among them, but so were oil merchants and Vellalas. 
  • The Alwars and Nayyanars fought Brahmanical dominance as well as Jainism and Buddhism. They collaborated to provide the groundwork for India’s Bhakti movement. 

Bhakti Movement in North India 

  • During the 12th-17th centuries CE, the Bhakti movement gained prominence in the northern portions of the country. 
  • The Bhakti movement in north India is sometimes thought to be a continuation of the movement that began in the south. 
  • Despite the parallels in the two regions’ traditions, the concept of Bhakti differed according to the teachings of each of the saints. 
  • The expansion of Islam in India affected the northern mediaeval Bhakti movement. 
  • The main aspects of Islam, such as belief in one God (monotheism), equality and fraternity, and rejection of rituals and class divisions, all had a significant influence on the Bhakti movement of this age. 
  • The campaign also brought about some social reforms. 

Important Bhakti Saints 

Ramanuja (1060-1118 AD) 

  • He was a Tamil Brahmin and one of the most prominent Vaishnavists. He travelled to several locations to convey his message of love and dedication before settling in Srirangam. 
  • He was the creator of the philosophy of ‘Vishist Advaita,’ i.e., qualified monism. According to him, salvation is possible through Karma, Gyan, or Bhakti 

Madhvacharya (1238-1317 AD) 

  • He founded the Dvaita Vada (i.e. dualism) school of Vedanta. 
  • He was a critic of Adi Shankaracharya’s Advaitavada theory, claiming that the Atman (individual soul) and Brahman (ultimate reality, i.e. Lord Vishnu) are fundamentally distinct and that the individual soul is dependent on the Brahman and can never be identical. 

Vallabhacharya (1479-1531 AD) 

  • He founded Shuddhadvaita (Pure Non-dualism), and his philosophy is known as ‘Pushti Marg.’ 
  • This group is based on Krishna, particularly his child appearance, and is embellished by the usage of customs, music, and festivals. 
  • He also established the Rudra Sampradaya school. 

Dnyaneshwar (Jnanadev) (1275-1296) 

  • He was the earliest Bhakti saint in Maharashtra and wrote the ‘Dnyaneshwari’ commentary on the Bhagavad Gita. 
  • Amrutanubhav on Yoga and Philosophy is his other work. Both of his pieces are regarded as landmarks in Marathi literature. 

Eknath (1533-1599) 

  • He was a Maharashtrian saint of the Varkari Panth. Sufi mysticism and Vedanta philosophy affected him. 
  • ‘Eknathi Bhagavatam,’ a commentary on the Bhagavata Purana, is his most famous work. He was a follower of the Saguna religion. 

Bhakti Movement and Women 

  • The Bhakti saints advocated for equality and encouraged women to participate. They denounced female infanticide and the practice of Sati. 
  • They also invited the women to renounce their worldly ties and participate in community-based kirtans. 
  • Meerabai was the most famous female Bhakti saint, and her songs devoted to ‘Krishna’ are immensely popular in India. 

Meerabai (1498-1546) 

  • She was a princess from Pali, Rajasthan, born into a royal family. 
  • Meerabai was a devout devotee of Lord Krishna and considered Krishna to be her lover. 
  • She wrote bhajans (short religious songs) that are still heard today. Meerabai was written in Braj bhasa and Rajasthani. 

Contributions of Bhakti Movement 

  • The Bhakti movement was critical in bringing about much-needed religious, social, and cultural reforms. 
  • They advocated for an equal social order by speaking out against caste and gender prejudice. 
  • They espoused religious concord and universal fraternity. Some saints drew Hindus and Muslims closer together and worked to reconcile their competing interests. 
  • They instilled in their students the importance of purity of mind and action. 
  • Religion was brought to the public through the use of vernacular languages in their teachings. 
  • This resulted in the expansion and development of vernacular languages and literature. 
  • A lot of works, for example, were created in Hindi, Marathi, and Gujarati. The Bhakti saints were passionately opposed to the priests’ prescribing of intricate ceremonies. 
  • Rather than rituals, a personal connection with God through bhajans and kirtans became the most popular form of devotion. 

Conclusion 

The Bhakti movement was a historical religious movement in medieval Hinduism that sought to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by using devotion to achieve salvation. The Bhakti movement evolved regionally around various gods and goddesses, with some sub-sects including Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti goddesses), and Smartism. The Bhakti movement preached in local languages for the message to reach the masses. Many poet-saints inspired the movement, championing a wide range of philosophical positions ranging from theistic to agnostic. The Bhakti movement empowered the underprivileged and engendered the growth of vernacular literature in India. 

The Sufi Movement (1200-1500) 

Sufism is a mystical Islamic religion and practice in which Muslims seek a direct personal experience of God in order to discover the truth of divine love and knowledge. It comprises a number of mystical paths aimed at determining the nature of humanity and God, as well as facilitating the experience of divine love and wisdom in the world. Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah was the first person to be termed a “Sufi,”. The simple ascetic lifestyle of the saints charmed the common people, and this was one of Sufism’s effects. They admired their humanity and individuality. They attracted people of all creeds, castes, and religions, as well as people of different educational and financial backgrounds. 

The Sufi Movement – Background 

  • The occurrence of Sufi philosophy in India is supposed to have occurred between 1200 and 1500 A.D. 
  • Sufis were devoted Muslims who followed Sharia (Islamic law) and thought it to be the only road to salvation
  • They ascribed esoteric meaning to the Quran’s teachings and regarded internal light or intuitive experience as far more important than traditional dogmatic rigidity. 
  • Sufis were organised into 12 orders, or Silsilahs, during this period. 
  • A Silsilah was usually headed by a notable mystic who resided with his students in a Khanqah or hospice
  • The Sufi system relied heavily on the relationship between the instructor, or Pir, and his students, or murids
  • Every Pir chose a wali or successor to carry on his work. 
  • Sufism’s monastic organization, as well as certain of their practices like penancefasting, and holding one’s breath, may be traced back to Buddhist and Hindu yogic influences. 
  • Prior to the arrival of Islam, Buddhism was widely practised in Central Asia, and the tale of the Buddha as a virtuous man had become part of Islamic folklore. 
  • Even after the advent of Islam, yogis continued to visit West Asia, and the yogic text Amrit-Kund had been translated from Sanskrit into Persian. 
  • Sufis appear to have absorbed and incorporated Hindu and Buddhist rites and ceremonies long before they arrived in India. 
  • It is debatable if Buddhist philosophical views and Vedantist ideas affected Sufism in any meaningful way. 
  • Many modern philosophers and Sufi saints trace Sufi principles back to the Quran
  • Regardless of background, the Sufis and Hindu yogis and mystics had a lot in common when it came to God’s character, his relationship with the soul, and the material world
  • This laid the groundwork for mutual tolerance and understanding
  • The Sufi orders are broadly divided into two: Ba-shara, that is, those which followed the Islamic Law (Sharia) and Be-shara, that is, those which were not bound by it. 
  • Both types of orders prevailed in India, the latter being followed more by wandering saints. 
  • Although these saints did not establish an order, some of them became figures of popular veneration, often for the Muslims and Hindus alike. 

Conclusion 

Sufi saints introduced the mystical version of Islam. It comprises a number of mystical paths aimed at determining the nature of humanity and God, as well as facilitating the experience of divine love and wisdom in the world. Sufism had a profound impact on South Asia’s religious, cultural, and social life. Sufi academics from all across continental Asia played an important role in India’s social, economic, and philosophical development. 

Difference Between Bhakti and Sufi Movement 

The Bhakti movement is an atheistic devotional trend that began in medieval India and later transformed society. Sufism is Islam’s mystical branch. Sufis reflect the innermost tenets of Islam (tasawwuf). The Bhakti and Sufi Movements of Medieval India played a critical part in the formation of a composite culture, the impact of which may still be observed today. 

Bhakti Movement 

  • The Bhakti movement was established on monotheistic principles and strongly opposed idol worship. 
  • The Bhakti movement was established on the concept that love and devotion, rather than rituals or religious procedures, are the best ways to connect with God. 
  • The Bhakti reformers campaigned for liberation from the cycle of life and death, and that salvation could only be reached through ardent devotion and trust in God. 
  • They emphasized the need for self-surrender in obtaining God’s happiness and grace, as well as the significance of Gurus who functioned as mentors and preceptors. 
  • They taught the concept of universal brotherhood. 

Sufi Movement 

  • The Sufis attempted to purify their inner selves via severe introspection and mental effort to erase even the tiniest trace of selfishness and achieve ikhlas, or absolute purity of intention and action. 
  • The mystics recognized that, in addition to knowledge of the external sciences, intuitive knowledge was required to obtain illumination to which reason has no access. 
  • For them, Dhawq, or direct “taste” of reality, was crucial. 
  • Sufis emphasize that Islamic knowledge should be obtained from teachers rather than books. 
  • Sufism’s ultimate goal is union with God. 

Difference Between Bhakti and Sufi Movement 

Bhakti Movement Sufi Movement 
Hindus were heavily impacted by the movement. It was mostly followed by Muslims. 
Bhakti Saints chanted Bhajans in order to worship Gods and Goddesses. Sufi Saints performed Qawwalis, a type of music used to promote religious devotion. 
The Bhakti movement began in South India in the seventh century. Sufism’s origins can be traced back to the early days of Islam in the seventh-century Arabian Peninsula. 
Scholars see the Bhakti Movement as an influential social revival and reformation movement in Hinduism. It has been misinterpreted as another sect of Islam, however, it is a religious order open to all Islamic denominations. 
From its origins in South India, the Bhakti movement spread throughout East and North India beginning in the 15th century. It reaches across many continents and cultures. 
The Bhakti Movement had a direct emotional and intellectual relationship with the divine. Sufism emphasized simplicity and austerity, and it gained many followers as a result of the worldliness of medieval empires and kingdoms. 
Famous proponents include Kabir Das, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Nanak, and Meerabai. Famous supporters include Hasan of Basra, Amir Khusrau, and Moinuddin Chishti. 

Conclusion 

The Bhakti movement is an atheistic devotional trend that arose in medieval India. Sufism is best described as an ascetic practice that helps believers achieve closeness to God via belief and practice. These two movements are widely regarded throughout India as having molded traditional significance into what it is today. The Bhakti and Sufi movements had a huge influence on the country’s Muslims and Hindus at the time, and they still remind people of how different things were back then.