Introduction

The National People’s Congress (NPC) is the supreme legislative body of the People’s Republic of China and convenes in the Great Hall of the People, Beijing. It is widely regarded as the largest parliament in the world. In China, all major political decisions are taken following political consultation among various political groups. The NPC holds the principal legislative authority of the state and functions as a mediator between the government, political parties, and other societal groups, ensuring that governance aligns with the broader consensus of the country.

Similarly, the State Council serves as the chief administrative organ of China. The Premier of China chairs the State Council, which consists of the heads of all governmental departments and agencies. This body exercises executive authority and shares state power with the Communist Party of China and the People’s Liberation Army, forming a critical component of the nation’s governance structure and policy implementation machinery.

The Chinese Revolution

The Chinese Revolution had a profound impact on the history of China. Beginning with the White Lotus Rebellion (1796-1804), the entire nineteenth century witnessed a series of revolutions that gradually weakened the imperial government. By the latter half of the century, military matters increasingly occupied civilian officials, and the Ch’ing dynasty began to decline by the 1890s. Revolutionary sentiment spread across China, fueled by a combination of nationalist fervor, determination to overthrow the foreign-dominated Ch’ing dynasty, and resistance against other foreign powers seeking to impose their spheres of influence.

One significant aspect of the revolution was the rural-peasant movement, which aimed to revive traditional Chinese values by establishing a new dynasty emerging from the peasantry, reminiscent of the Han and Ming dynasties. Additionally, the revolution reflected a commercial-industrial spirit, with wealthy Chinese favoring liberal investments influenced by government policies. Another critical component came from urban intellectuals and scholars, who advocated for the internalization of modernity and Western values. They called for the abandonment of traditional approaches to society and administration, promoting a Western-inspired framework for governance. These revolutionary forces inspired significant reforms during the latter Ch’ing period, ultimately undermining imperial authority and paving the way for nationalist governance after years of disunity.

Early Reforms of the 1900s

China experienced profound humiliation due to the imposition of the Boxer Protocols by European powers. The Boxer Rebellion of 1900 ended in failure, but it compelled the imperial government to implement reformatory measures and Westernize China. A major reform occurred in education, allowing girls to attend schools and introducing modern subjects such as science, mathematics, engineering, and geography, while gradually moving away from classical Confucian studies. The civil service examinations were also modernized, and by 1905, the old curriculum was abandoned entirely. Chinese students were encouraged to study abroad in Japan and Europe, embracing scientific and modern subjects, including economics, and ushering in a new era marked by Western ideas such as Marxism.

Under Yüan Shih-k’ai (1859-1916), the military was reorganized along Western and Japanese models, establishing a professional officer corps based on loyalty to commanders rather than the emperor. The last Hsüan-tung emperor, Pu Yi, ascended the throne in 1909, the same year that provincial assemblies, initially suggested by K’ang Yu-wei, were organized.

The Consultative Assembly, established in 1910, was democratically elected and aimed to unify the nation, though it often acted as an adversary to the imperial government. Rising tensions, such as the proposed nationalization of railways, sparked an uprising in Szechwan Province in 1911, which quickly escalated into a national revolution, ultimately ending imperial rule in China.

Sun Yat-Sen

The 1911 Revolution originated from an uprising in Szechwan Province, motivated by the government’s railway nationalization plan. Prior to this, the revolutionaries were fragmented into groups: affluent businessmen fearing financial loss, military commanders seeking autonomy, and Sun Yat-Sen (Figure 4.1), a Western-educated revolutionary who had attempted to overthrow the Ch’ing Dynasty in 1895 but failed. Sun Yat-Sen emerged as the chief leader of the Chinese Revolution and is widely regarded as the father of the revolution.

Sun received a Western education and envisioned the revolution as a three-pronged movement: to expel the foreign Machu Dynasty, establish a democratic republic, and equalize land rights and wealth. He unified various revolutionary groups under the Chinese United League (Chung-kuo T’ung-meng hui, or T’ung-meng hui) and meticulously planned the revolution in three stages:

1. Establishing a military government for three years.

2. Implementing a democratic government over a six-year period.

3. Transitioning China into a constitutional democracy.

Through these stages, Sun Yat-Sen sought to transform China from a dynastic empire into a modern, democratic nation guided by principles of nationalism, democracy, and social equality.

Yüan Shih-Kai

Yüan Shih-Kai emerged as a crucial figure in the 1911 Revolution. A conservative bureaucrat and monarchist, he was appointed by the imperial government in 1911 to suppress the rebellion. His decisive actions led to significant casualties, which inadvertently fueled further revolutionary movements. As the revolution progressed, Yüan recognized that the overthrow of the monarchy was inevitable and strategically chose to avoid direct conflict with the revolutionaries. Subsequently, the revolution positioned him as a virtual dictator of China until his death in 1916.

Beginning of the Revolution of 1911

By 1911, at least ten revolutionary attempts had occurred in various Chinese provinces, predominantly in the southwest. The actual beginning of the revolution took place in Szechwan, where students protested the proposed nationalization of railways on 24 August 1911. When the government arrested movement leaders, thirty-two people were killed in clashes between government troops and protestors, escalating into widespread conflict. Initially, the movement was led by wealthy conservative elites, who sought only to prevent financial losses rather than dismantle the imperial government. However, when negotiations failed, these elites supported the revolutionaries.

The revolution rapidly expanded as provinces including Changsha, Yunnan, Kwangtung, and Szechwan declared independence from the Ch’ing Empire by late October and November. By the end of November, two-thirds of China was free from Ch’ing rule. In December, provincial delegates from Central and North China convened, declaring the establishment of a republic, with Sun Yat-Sen elected as provincial president. The 1st of January 1912 was set as the official inauguration day of the Republic of China, though the complete removal of the Ch’ing dynasty remained pending.

Ch’ing Abdication

The imperial court was in its final moments. As a desperate measure, Yüan Shih-Kai was appointed governor-general of Hunan and Hupeh, the only provinces yet to secede. He was also elected Prime Minister by the National Assembly in Beijing. Yüan demanded that the Manchus:

• Establish a national assembly

• Forgive the insurrectionists

• Grant him complete control over the military

• Lift the ban on political parties

The regent, Prince Chün, acting on behalf of the young emperor, agreed to all demands, with Yüan securing control over the military as his most crucial condition. Recognizing the inevitable fall of the Manchu Dynasty, Yüan sought to avoid civil war and positioned himself as the first president of the Republic of China.

Revolutionaries acknowledged Yüan’s influence, understanding that he could ensure the success of the revolution while preventing civil war. On 3 January 1912, Yüan publicly demanded the presidency in exchange for pressuring the Ch’ing Dynasty to abdicate. Sun Yat-Sen, the first elected president, consented. The remaining Manchu nobility was persuaded through the allegiance of over fifty generals.

On 1 February 1912, Yüan was officially received by the Empress Dowager, marking the formal transfer of power. The former royal family was treated with respect, provided allowances, and considered foreign royalty. The emperor was officially abdicated on 12 February, followed by Sun Yat-Sen’s resignation on 13 February. The United States formally recognized the Republic on 5 April 1912. Despite professing republican ideals, Yüan placed loyal cronies in key cabinet positions, while the Tung Meng-hui leaders held minor roles, reflecting his true ambitions.

Kuomintang

In summer 1912, four parties merged with Sun Yat-Sen’s Tung-Meng Hui to form the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party). Sung Chaio-Jen, a key revolutionary educated in Japan, controlled the party and aimed to check Yüan’s growing power through a responsible cabinet and parliamentary oversight. When Yüan failed to co-opt Sung with bribes, he orchestrated Sung’s assassination on 20 March 1913, shortly before Sung was to assume parliamentary control. This act triggered impeachment attempts, while Yüan swiftly consolidated power over the provinces.

Yüan’s Dictatorship

Through intimidation, Yüan compelled Parliament to elect him president in October 1913. He subsequently implemented the Tien-t’an Constitution, favoring a cabinet-based parliamentary system over the presidential model, leading to the permanent dissolution of Parliament. By early 1914, Yüan Shih-Kai had become dictator of China. Sun Yat-Sen fled to Japan, and the Kuomintang was effectively neutralized. Yüan aspired to become emperor of China, halting revolutionary movements and consolidating power.

The Japanese Prime Minister, Okuma, advised that a constitutional monarchy would stabilize China-Japan relations. Yüan’s American advisor, Frank Good, published articles suggesting that republicanism was unsuitable for China. The National People’s Representative Assembly overwhelmingly voted for monarchy on 20 November 1915, and provincial delegates urged Yüan to assume the throne. However, he underestimated anti-monarchical sentiment, especially among provincial governors and military leaders.

Military leader Ts’ai Ao initiated a revolution in Yunnan, prompting more provinces to rebel. Yüan abandoned his imperial ambitions by March 1916. Isolated and humiliated, Yüan died of uraemia in June 1916, marking the definitive end of imperial China.

The Period of Warlordism (1916-1927)

The collapse of the Kuomintang marked the end of China’s early republican aspirations. Following the death of Yüan Shih-Kai and the fragmentation of provinces in the final year of his presidency, China disintegrated into numerous semi-autonomous states, most of which were dominated by military leaders or warlords. The question of presidential succession remained unresolved, plunging the country into political disarray. During this period, warlords frequently imposed arbitrary and aggressive policies against neighboring provinces, often over trivial or illogical pretexts, resulting in widespread political chaos and instability.

Amidst this turmoil, Sun Yat-Sen began consolidating his forces in the southern provinces. Despite his efforts, early attempts to restore national unity were largely unsuccessful. He temporarily retired to focus on developing strategies and theories aimed at the unification of China. During this period, he transformed his party into the Chinese Nationalist Party (Chung-kuo Kuo-min-tang) and successfully captured the province of Canton, where he established a republican government. He declared this government as the national government of China, positioning it in opposition to the warlord regimes controlling Beijing and northern China.

By 1924, Sun Yat-Sen passed away, convinced that his vision of a unified republic had failed, as China remained racked by disunity, violence, and anarchy. Nonetheless, his revolutionary ideals endured. In 1926, Chiang Kai-Shek, a young general deeply committed to Sun’s vision, took up the mission to dismantle the warlord governments. Through a series of military campaigns and strategic consolidations, Chiang succeeded by 1928 in establishing a nationalist government in Nanking, finally realizing Sun Yat-Sen’s dream of Chinese unification and ending the prolonged period of warlordism.