Agricultural growth and industrial growth are complementary, and per se, interdependent.

We can discuss this complementarity and linkage in two parts.

• Agriculture’s contribution to the industrial growth.
• Industry’s contribution to the growth of the agricultural sector.

Agriculture's Contribution to the Industrial Growth

Simon Kuznets identifies four possible types of contribution that the agricultural sector is capable of making to overall economic development. These are as follows:

i) Product contribution, i.e. making available food and raw materials,

ii) Market contribution, i.e. providing the market for producer goods and consumer goods in the non-agricultural sector,

iii Factor contribution, i.e. making available labour and capital to the nonagricultural sector,

iv) Foreign exchange contribution, i.e. earning foreign exchange required for diversified imports.

Let us elucidate further the contribution of the agricultural sector to the industrial growth in the following:

a) Food supply and Industrialisation

Industrialisation is characterised by a substantial increase in the demand for agricultural products, and failure to expand food supplies can seriously restrict growth.

Apart from autonomous changes in demand, the annual rate of increase in demand is given by D = p + eg where ‘p’ and ‘g’ are the rate of growth of population and per capita income and ‘e’ is the income elasticity of demand for agricultural products.

The income elasticity of demand for food in developing countries is considerably higher than in high-income nations. Hence, a given rate of increase in per capita income has a considerably stronger impact on the demand for agricultural products than in economically advanced countries.

With rapid industrialisation, per capita incomes rise. If food supplies fail to expand in pace with the growth of demand the result is likely to be a substantial rise in food prices leading to pressure on wage rates with consequent adverse effects on industrial profits, investment and growth.

It may be possible to supplement domestic supply of food grains by imports in order to maintain their internal – demand-supply equilibrium. But this type of activity may lead to another imbalance – this time in the external sector of the economy which in turn may have an adverse effect on the domestic sector. Food imports may prove a heavy burden on the country’s balance of payments. This, in turn, may make it necessary for the country to forego the more essential imports of capital goods like machinery, technical know-how, etc. If it happens, this will narrow the potential of growth.

b) Inputs for Industry

Two essential inputs required for industries may be procured only hm the agricultural sector. These are: (i) raw materials and (ii) labour.

Inspite of all technological and scientific transformation it has not been possible for industries to dispense with the supply of agricultural raw materials like, cotton, jute, sugarcane, hides, etc. It would be no exaggeration to assert that the failure of agricultural crops during a particular year spells disaster for industry, since the sources of raw materials supply dry up.

Similarly, the agricultural sector comprises a vast majority of people in a developing economy. The increasing demand for labour as the programmes of industrialisation proceed can be met only by drawing labour from the agricultural sector. If workers are to be drawn from agriculture and absorbed into the industrial sector, agricultural productivity must be improved to make their departure possible. As more and more workers are released from agriculture, the remaining workers must increase their productivity merely to maintain vital food supplies.

c) Source of Capital Formation

The lion’s share of national income in a developing economy is generated in the agricultural sector. If agriculture is well developed it can make a net contribution to capital formation in the industrial sector. There are three arguments in support of this view:

i) Capital-output ratio in agriculture is relatively low compared to industry so that there is great scope for raising productivity in agriculture by means that require only moderate outlays on capital.

ii) There is a strong tendency for sectoral terms of trade to improve in favour of agriculture, which leads to an increase in farm incomes at a relatively greater rate than non-farm incomes.

iii) The consumption levels to which the farm population is traditionally habituated are generally low and these are not likely to increase commensurately with the rise in incomes, which accrue with agricultural development.

d) Source of Foreign Exchange

In its infant stage industry creates little foreign exchange but creates demand for it. Industry needs foreign exchange for machmery, technology and other inputs that are not produced locally. If agriculture does not provide foreign exchange from export sales of primary products, the country may again be confronted with the balance of payments bottleneck that will impede the industrialisation programme.

e) Market for Industrial Products

Industry needs a strong, well-developed market to operate and hction efficiently. There are many industries that require a minimum size before they can take advantage of current technology and economies of scale.

The bulk of the industries’ demand in developing countries comes from people directly engaged in agriculture. If people in the agricultural sector do not earn an income over and above their subsistence needs they will not be able to furnish the market which the industry needs, for a start and continuous growth. The influence of agriculture on industrial consumption goods through the demand route works along two ways:

i) Increased agricultural production and growing income stimulate demand for industrial goods.

ii) The effect of agriculture on industry also works through the terms of trade. The impact of a rise in the terms of trade in favour of agriculture will adversely aff’ect the demand for non-food items in urban areas. In rural areas, however, the terms of trade effects are not necessarily in one direction. In the case of lower income groups, while the effect may be the same as in the urban areas, in the case ofhigh income groups, the negative effect on demand can be offset by the increase in income resulting fiom the improvement in agricultural prices. The overall efffect of the rise in terms oftrade will depend upon the combined effect for all classes of population.

Thus. agricultural performance can affect the demand for industrial consumption goods both through output effects and terms of trade effects.

To sum up, increasing agricultural productivity makes an important contribution to the programmes of industrialisation and that it is one of the necessary conditions, which must be fulfilled before an economy gets ready for a process of self-sustained growth.

Industry's Contribution to Agricultural Growth 

Industry contributes to and makes possible agricultural progress in a number of ways:

i) Most of the modem inputs, including fertilisers, pesticides and even water are made available by industry.

ii) Industry supplies the machinery required on the farms.

iii) Agricultural engineering is a significant branch of industry.

iv) Most of the research that has gone in to bring about green revolution in our country has been undertaken in what can be described as industrial culture.

v) Industry helps raise the necessary infrastructure required for agricultural progress. This may consist of transportation and communication, trade and commerce, banking and marketing channels, etc.

vi) Industry is to meet the growing demand for consumer goods in the rural sector in the wake of growing population and income in this sector.

To sum up, it is a wise and rational strategy for a developing country to promote integrated development of both agriculture and industry, now because of their inter-dependence in course of economic development, but also because of their technical inter-relationship in the sense that each sectors some kind of output or the other in its own production process. In formulating the strategy of integrated development of agriculture and industry, agro-industries should be assigned an important role since they form a vital link between the two. In their bid to promote fashionable modem industrial complexes, developing countries easily tend to overlook the crucial role that agro-industries could play in promoting the integrated development of agriculture and industry and in transforming a stagnant rural economy into dynamic industrialised economy.

Agriculture is fundamental to the development and functioning of an economy, interacting with other sectors in multiple ways. While in modern economies, agriculture may account for a smaller proportion of GDP and employment, its multiplier effects across sectors remain significant. The relationship between agriculture and the rest of the economy can be analyzed through the lenses of economic development, labor dynamics, industrialization, technological transfer, trade, income distribution, and environmental sustainability.

Agriculture as the Foundation of Economic Development

In the early stages of development, agriculture is the dominant sector, both in terms of employment and output. Historically, it has served as the engine of growth in most economies, providing the basic necessities like food and raw materials. Economists such as Arthur Lewis have highlighted how agricultural sectors enable broader economic transformations. In his dual-sector model, Lewis posited that economies begin in a state where the agricultural sector employs most of the labor force. As industrialization takes off, surplus labor from agriculture is transferred to more productive sectors, like manufacturing and services. This transition is essential for economic modernization.

Capital Formation

Agriculture has traditionally been a major source of capital formation. In many countries, agricultural surpluses generate the income necessary for investment in other sectors. For instance, the Green Revolution in India during the 1960s and 1970s significantly increased agricultural productivity, which in turn boosted income and allowed the country to invest in infrastructure and industrial development. Moreover, agricultural surpluses are often used for exports, which can help earn foreign exchange needed for importing essential industrial goods.

Food Supply and Urbanization

Agriculture’s role in food production is vital for supporting urbanization and the expansion of non-agricultural sectors. As countries develop, a growing population shifts from rural areas to urban centers, leading to a higher demand for food in cities. To meet this demand, agricultural productivity must increase to avoid food shortages and price spikes that could destabilize the economy. Thus, agriculture must develop alongside industry to sustain a growing urban workforce.

Interaction Between Agriculture and Industry

The relationship between agriculture and industry is mutually reinforcing, but this interaction can change over time.

Backward and Forward Linkages

Agriculture is often described as having backward and forward linkages with other sectors. Backward linkages refer to how agriculture stimulates demand for inputs like fertilizers, machinery, and technology. For example, industries producing agricultural equipment and chemicals grow in response to the needs of the agricultural sector. Forward linkages occur when agricultural products are inputs for industries, such as food processing, textiles, or biofuels. These inter-sectoral connections are crucial in sustaining the value chain within an economy.

Agro-Processing and Industrialization

As economies develop, agriculture increasingly becomes integrated into industrial processes, especially through agro-processing industries. Agro-processing involves the transformation of raw agricultural products into finished goods, such as turning grains into flour or milk into dairy products. This not only adds value to agricultural products but also provides employment in industries linked to agriculture. In Brazil, for instance, agriculture and agro-processing industries play a significant role in the economy, with Brazil being one of the world’s largest exporters of soybeans, coffee, and sugar.

Labor Dynamics Between Agriculture and Other Sectors

The agricultural sector often plays a vital role in providing labor for the industrial and service sectors, especially in developing economies.

Surplus Labor and Migration

In developing countries, the agricultural sector typically contains surplus labor, meaning that not all workers are fully employed or productive. As industries grow, they absorb this surplus labor, which shifts from rural to urban areas. This movement is known as rural-to-urban migration, and it forms the backbone of industrial expansion. For instance, during the Industrial Revolution in Britain, millions of rural laborers moved to cities, providing the labor force necessary for the rise of factories.

Rural Employment and Poverty Alleviation

Agriculture also plays a significant role in poverty alleviation by providing employment for a large portion of the rural population. In regions where industrial jobs are scarce, agriculture remains the primary source of livelihood. Policies that promote rural development, such as improving agricultural productivity through education, infrastructure, and credit, can help reduce rural poverty and foster more equitable economic growth.

Technological Innovation and Transfer

The agricultural sector is both a source and recipient of technological innovations that can drive broader economic growth.

Mechanization and Green Revolution

Technological innovations such as mechanization and improved seed varieties have transformed agriculture in many parts of the world. The Green Revolution, which introduced high-yielding varieties of crops and advanced irrigation techniques, increased food production in countries like India and Mexico, fostering broader economic growth. This period also saw significant technology transfers between the agricultural and industrial sectors, as innovations like tractors, combine harvesters, and irrigation equipment were developed in industrial settings and applied to farming.

Biotechnology and Precision Agriculture

In modern economies, the adoption of biotechnology and precision agriculture further underscores the close interaction between agriculture and technology-based industries. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs), for example, have increased crop yields and reduced losses due to pests and disease, while precision farming, which uses GPS and data analytics, allows farmers to optimize planting, irrigation, and fertilization. These advancements not only increase agricultural productivity but also drive demand for high-tech industries producing software, hardware, and data analytics services.

Agriculture and Trade

Agriculture is a significant contributor to international trade, and trade plays a critical role in shaping the agricultural sector.

Export Commodities

Many developing countries rely heavily on agricultural exports as a source of foreign exchange. For example, countries like Ethiopia depend on coffee exports, while Argentina is a major exporter of soybeans and beef. These exports provide crucial revenue that can be used to import industrial goods and services not produced domestically. The terms of trade for agricultural products, however, are often volatile, which can lead to instability in these economies.

Global Supply Chains

Modern agriculture is deeply integrated into global supply chains, with many agricultural products undergoing processing and transformation in various countries before reaching consumers. For instance, the production of chocolate involves the export of cocoa beans from countries like Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana to processing facilities in Europe or the United States. The globalization of agriculture has created both opportunities and challenges, with developing countries needing to balance domestic food security with participation in global markets.

Income Distribution and Economic Diversification

The relationship between agriculture and income distribution is complex, especially in economies that depend heavily on farming.

Rural-Urban Income Disparities

Agricultural economies often exhibit significant rural-urban income disparities. As industrialization progresses, urban workers in the industrial and service sectors typically earn higher wages than their rural counterparts. This can lead to growing income inequality, which, if left unaddressed, may result in social and political tensions. Policies aimed at improving rural infrastructure, providing access to markets, and supporting smallholder farmers can help narrow this gap.

Economic Diversification

Agriculture plays a critical role in economic diversification, especially in developing economies. By increasing productivity and investing in value-added industries, agriculture can serve as a platform for expanding into sectors like manufacturing, services, and technology. Diversification reduces dependency on any one sector and creates a more resilient economy capable of withstanding shocks from climate change or commodity price fluctuations.

Environmental Sustainability and Climate Change

Finally, agriculture’s interaction with the rest of the economy has significant environmental implications.

Sustainable Farming Practices

The intensification of agricultural practices has often led to deforestation, soil degradation, and water scarcity. As such, there is an increasing need for sustainable farming practices that balance productivity with environmental conservation. Agroecology, for example, integrates ecological principles into farming to reduce the environmental impact and improve biodiversity.

Climate Change and Agriculture

Agriculture is both a contributor to and a victim of climate change. It accounts for a significant share of greenhouse gas emissions, particularly from livestock, rice production, and land-use changes. At the same time, agriculture is highly vulnerable to climate change, as extreme weather events, changing precipitation patterns, and rising temperatures affect crop yields and food security. Investment in climate-resilient agriculture, including drought-resistant crops and improved irrigation techniques, is vital for safeguarding the future of agriculture and the economy.

Conclusion

The interaction between agriculture and the rest of the economy is deeply intertwined and multifaceted. Agriculture is not only the foundation of economic development but also plays a key role in supporting industrialization, trade, technological progress, labor migration, and environmental sustainability. Even in advanced economies where agriculture accounts for a smaller share of GDP, its indirect effects through backward and forward linkages, its role in maintaining food security, and its contribution to global trade make it a critical sector. To ensure continued economic growth and sustainability, policies must focus on enhancing agricultural productivity, improving rural infrastructure, and promoting sustainable practices to address the challenges of climate change and resource scarcity.

Sharecropping is a system of agriculture in which a landowner allows a tenant farmer to use the land in return for a share of the crops produced on that land. This practice has historical roots that trace back to various regions of the world, but it became especially prominent in the Southern United States following the Civil War. While sharecropping can seem like a reasonable system of mutual benefit, it often entrenched economic inequality and became a system of exploitation, particularly for formerly enslaved African Americans.

Historical Context of Sharecropping

Sharecropping emerged as a prominent agricultural system after the Civil War in the United States, especially during the Reconstruction era (1865–1877). Before the war, the Southern economy was largely based on slavery. Enslaved Africans provided free labor to large plantations owned by wealthy white landowners, producing cash crops like cotton, tobacco, and rice. The emancipation of enslaved people and the collapse of the Confederate economy left the Southern labor market in disarray. Formerly enslaved people, who lacked access to land and resources, and former slaveholders, who needed labor to maintain their agricultural enterprises, entered into a system of sharecropping to solve these immediate issues.

The Structure of Sharecropping

In a typical sharecropping arrangement, the landowner would provide the land, and often other inputs such as seed, tools, and housing. The tenant farmer, or sharecropper, provided labor to cultivate and harvest the crops. At the end of the harvest, the crop would be divided between the tenant and the landowner. Typically, the landowner would claim a significant portion of the harvest (often around 50 percent), while the tenant farmer kept the remaining share.

The sharecropping system was designed in theory to be mutually beneficial: landowners had access to labor without paying upfront wages, and landless farmers gained access to land and resources without having to purchase them outright. However, in practice, sharecropping often led to a cycle of debt and poverty for the tenant farmers.

Economic and Social Impacts

Sharecropping often trapped tenant farmers in an exploitative system that was difficult to escape. Most sharecroppers were poor, lacked capital, and were dependent on the landowner not only for access to land but also for other essentials such as seeds, tools, and sometimes even food and clothing. These goods were usually provided on credit, with interest rates as high as 50 percent or more. As a result, many sharecroppers were unable to pay off their debts at the end of the harvest. This led to a cycle of debt peonage in which sharecroppers were continually indebted to the landowner, effectively binding them to the land in a way that resembled the economic dependency and control associated with slavery.

Landowners typically retained control over many aspects of the farming process, often dictating what crops to plant and how to manage the land. This limited the autonomy of sharecroppers, who were frequently forced to grow cash crops like cotton rather than food crops, which they needed for sustenance. The emphasis on cash crops like cotton made the Southern economy highly dependent on a few agricultural commodities, which in turn increased the region’s vulnerability to fluctuations in market prices. If the price of cotton fell, both landowners and sharecroppers suffered. However, landowners, being more affluent, were better able to absorb the economic shocks, whereas sharecroppers faced greater hardship.

Racial and Class Dimensions of Sharecropping

Although sharecropping was practiced by people of various racial and ethnic backgrounds, it became heavily racialized in the American South. A significant proportion of sharecroppers were African Americans, many of whom were formerly enslaved people who had few other economic options. For these African American sharecroppers, sharecropping represented a continuation of economic and social exploitation, as the system perpetuated racial hierarchies that had been established under slavery.

White landowners often used the system of sharecropping to maintain social and economic dominance over African Americans. The legal and political environment of the time—including the implementation of Black Codes and later Jim Crow laws—reinforced the racial inequality that existed within the sharecropping system. These laws restricted the mobility and economic opportunities available to African Americans, effectively preventing them from accumulating wealth and keeping them bound to the land in much the same way that they had been under slavery.

In addition to African Americans, poor white farmers also participated in sharecropping. After the Civil War, many white farmers in the South found themselves impoverished due to the economic collapse of the region. These poor whites also entered into sharecropping agreements, and although they experienced many of the same economic hardships, they typically enjoyed greater social status than their African American counterparts. The landowning elite, primarily made up of wealthy white families, maintained their dominance through both economic exploitation and social division, often pitting poor whites and African Americans against one another.

Legal and Contractual Aspects of Sharecropping

The sharecropping system was largely based on informal and formal contracts between landowners and tenant farmers. These contracts were often written in ways that favored the landowner, who had more resources and legal knowledge than the tenant farmer. In some cases, sharecropping agreements were verbal, leaving the tenant with little legal recourse if disputes arose. Even in cases where contracts were written, tenant farmers—many of whom were illiterate—often did not fully understand the terms of the agreements they were entering into. This power imbalance frequently led to exploitation.

The landowner typically had the legal right to evict sharecroppers if they failed to meet the terms of the agreement or fell into debt. This constant threat of eviction made sharecroppers vulnerable to abuses by the landowner. For example, landowners could manipulate the accounting of crop yields or inflate the costs of supplies provided on credit, making it nearly impossible for sharecroppers to pay off their debts. As a result, many sharecroppers were trapped in a cycle of poverty and dependency, unable to accumulate wealth or gain economic independence.

Decline of Sharecropping

The system of sharecropping began to decline in the United States during the early to mid-20th century, although it persisted in some regions well into the 20th century. Several factors contributed to its decline. First, the mechanization of agriculture reduced the demand for manual labor, making sharecropping less economically viable for landowners. Tractors, mechanical cotton pickers, and other machinery transformed agriculture, particularly in the production of cotton, which was one of the main crops produced under the sharecropping system.

Second, the Great Depression and New Deal policies of the 1930s also played a role in diminishing the sharecropping system. Programs like the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) paid landowners to reduce crop production in order to stabilize agricultural prices. However, many landowners evicted sharecroppers when they reduced their planted acreage, leaving tenant farmers without land or income. Additionally, government programs that aimed to support farmers financially often excluded or did not reach sharecroppers, further marginalizing them.

Finally, the migration of African Americans and poor whites to Northern cities during the Great Migration (1916–1970) contributed to the decline of sharecropping. Many former sharecroppers left the South in search of better economic opportunities in industrialized urban areas. This migration, along with changes in the agricultural economy, gradually reduced the importance of sharecropping in the Southern United States.

Legacy of Sharecropping

The legacy of sharecropping is a complex one, as it is both a symbol of persistence in the face of adversity and a reminder of the exploitative labor practices that followed the end of slavery. Economically, sharecropping entrenched poverty and underdevelopment in the South, contributing to the region’s economic lag behind other parts of the country for much of the 20th century. Socially, the system reinforced racial inequalities that had deep roots in the institution of slavery.

Although the formal system of sharecropping has largely disappeared, its legacy can still be seen in the persistent economic disparities between African Americans and whites, particularly in the rural South. Furthermore, the system has been immortalized in American culture and literature, with many novels, songs, and historical studies highlighting the hardships and resilience of sharecroppers.

In conclusion, sharecropping was more than just a method of farming; it was a social and economic system that had profound implications for the lives of millions of people, particularly African Americans, in the post-Civil War South. While it allowed landowners to maintain their agricultural enterprises and offered some measure of independence to landless farmers, it also entrenched a system of inequality that perpetuated the exploitation and marginalization of tenant farmers.

Contract farming involves agricultural production being carried out on the basis of an agreement between the buyer and farm producers. Sometimes it involves the buyer specifying the quality required and the price, with the farmer agreeing to deliver at a future date. More commonly, however, contracts outline conditions for the production of farm products and for their delivery to the buyer’s premises. The farmer undertakes to supply agreed quantities of a crop or livestock product, based on the quality standards and delivery requirements of the purchaser. In return, the buyer, usually a company, agrees to buy the product, often at a price that is established in advance. The company often also agrees to support the farmer through, e.g., supplying inputs, assisting with land preparation, providing production advice and transporting produce to its premises. The term “outgrower scheme” is sometimes used synonymously with contract farming, most commonly in Eastern and Southern Africa. Contract farming can be used for many agricultural products, although in developing countries it is less common for staple crops such as rice and maize.

Key benefits

Contract farming has been used for agricultural production for decades but its popularity appears to have been increasing in recent years. The use of contracts has become attractive to many farmers because the arrangement can offer both an assured market and access to production support. Contract farming is also of interest to buyers, who seek supplies of products for sale further along the value chain or for processing. Processors constitute the main users of contracts, as the guaranteed supply enables them to maximise utilization of their processing capacity. Contracts with farmers can also reduce risk from disease or weather and facilitate certification, which is being increasingly demanded by advanced markets. There are also potential benefits for national economies as contract farming leads to economies of scale, which, as Collier and Dercon argue, are “bound to provide for a more dynamic agricultural sector.

Although contract farming must first and foremost be considered as a commercial proposition, it has also come to be viewed as an effective approach to help solve many of the market access and input supply problems faced by small farmers. A guide published by GIZ in 2013 seeks to advise on ways in which contract farming can be developed to maximise such benefits for smallholders in developing countries. Effective linkages between companies and thousands of farmers often require the involvement of formal farmer associations or cooperatives or, at least, informal farmer groups. However, empirical evidence of the best way of achieving this is not yet available.

Types

Eaton and Shepherd^[2] identify five different contract farming models. Under the centralized model a company provides support to smallholder production, purchases the crop, and then processes or markets it, closely controlling its quality. This model is used for crops such as tobacco, cotton, sugar cane, banana, tea, and rubber. Under the Nucleus Estate model, the company also manages a plantation in order to supplement smallholder production and provide minimum throughput for the processing plant. This approach is mainly used for tree crops such as oil palm and rubber. The Multipartite model usually involves a partnership between government bodies, private companies and farmers. At a lower level of sophistication, the Intermediary model can involve subcontracting by companies to intermediaries, who either have formal arrangements with farmers, such as cooperatives, or less-formal arrangements, such as traders. Finally, the Informal model involves small and medium enterprises who make simple contracts with farmers on a seasonal basis. Although these are usually just seasonal arrangements they are often repeated annually and usually rely for their success on the proximity of the buyer to the seller.

Issues of concern

As with any contract, there are a number of risks associated with contract farming. Common problems include farmers selling to a buyer other than the one with whom they hold a contract (known as side selling, extra-contractual marketing or, in the Philippines, “pole vaulting”), or using inputs supplied by the company for purposes other than intended. From the other side, a company sometimes fails to buy products at the agreed prices or in the agreed quantities, or arbitrarily downgrades produce quality.

The existence of an adequate legal framework is thus crucial for the successful implementation and long-term sustainability of contract farming operations. A system of law is essential to assist farmers and their buyers in the negotiation and drafting of contracts. It is also important to protect them from risks that may occur during contractual execution, such as abuse of power by the stronger bargaining party or breach of contract. Strengthening farmer organizations to improve their contract negotiating skills can redress the potential for subsequent misunderstandings. Different countries have enacted policies and legislation to ensure fair contractual practices and offer remedies for dispute resolution. A “Legal Guide on Contract Farming” was developed in 2013–15 by the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT) in partnership with FAO.

Even apparently successful contracts from a legal point of view can face other difficulties. For example, family relationships can be threatened. Work for contracts is often done by women but the contracts are invariably in the name of the man who also receives the payment. Men attend meetings and training courses but women often get no training. Land used by women for food crops or commercial production may be taken over for contract production. This can affect not only food production but also the status of the women. Contracts can break down because of poor management by the company or as a result of unrealistic expectations about the capacity of farmers or about the yields that can be achieved. This has been a particular problem with attempts to promote contract farming for biofuel crops.

Maximising the chances of success

Contract farming has to be commercially viable. To maximise profitability companies need to choose the best available farmers. Once suitable farmers have been identified it is then necessary to develop trust, as contracts will only work when both parties believe they are better off by engaging in them. To achieve this requires a willingness to collaborate and share information. Disagreements over product grading, for example, can be avoided by providing clear, simple specifications in a contract and by ensuring that farmers or their representatives are present when the produce is graded. Late payment can immediately cause a breakdown of trust and must be avoided. Contracts should be flexible to take into account the possibility of extreme events such as high open market prices or bad weather. Finally, however hard the parties try, disagreements are inevitable. Contracts should ideally make provision for arbitration by someone acceptable to both the company and the farmers. FAO’s Guiding Principle for Responsible Contract Farming Operations provides concise advice on how to maximise the chances of success for both companies and farmers. Of particular importance here is the role of producer organisations in bargaining for smallholders’ interests.

Productivity in agriculture refers to the efficiency with which agricultural inputs such as land, labor, capital, and technology are transformed into outputs like crops, livestock, and other agricultural products. Increasing agricultural productivity is essential for ensuring food security, promoting economic growth, and improving the livelihoods of people, particularly in developing countries where agriculture is often a primary economic activity. The concept of productivity in agriculture is multi-faceted and influenced by a variety of factors, including technological advancements, access to resources, government policies, environmental conditions, and labor efficiency.

Definition and Measurement of Agricultural Productivity

Agricultural productivity is typically measured as the ratio of agricultural outputs to agricultural inputs. The most common ways to measure this productivity include:

• Land productivity: This is the output per unit area of land, often measured as yield per hectare. It reflects how efficiently the land is used to produce crops or livestock.
• Labor productivity: This refers to the output produced per unit of labor, typically per worker or per labor hour. It measures the efficiency of human labor in producing agricultural goods.
• Total Factor Productivity (TFP): TFP is a more comprehensive measure that accounts for all inputs used in agriculture, including land, labor, capital, and technology. An increase in TFP indicates that more output is being produced without a proportional increase in inputs, often due to innovations, improved techniques, or better resource management.

Historical Trends in Agricultural Productivity

Historically, agricultural productivity has increased significantly over the centuries, especially during periods of technological innovation. Early agricultural societies relied on manual labor and basic tools, which limited productivity. However, with the advent of the Agricultural Revolution in the 18th century and the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, productivity began to rise. Mechanization, improved crop varieties, and better farm management practices all contributed to this increase.

The Green Revolution of the mid-20th century marked a particularly dramatic improvement in agricultural productivity, particularly in developing countries. The introduction of high-yielding crop varieties, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation systems revolutionized agriculture in countries such as India, Mexico, and the Philippines. This led to significant increases in crop yields and helped alleviate food shortages in many regions.

Factors Influencing Agricultural Productivity

Several key factors influence productivity in agriculture. These include technological innovations, soil health, water management, labor efficiency, infrastructure, education, government policies, and climate change.

1. Technological Advancements

Technological innovation is perhaps the most important driver of productivity in agriculture. The development and adoption of new technologies—such as tractors, combine harvesters, irrigation systems, genetic engineering, and precision agriculture tools—have allowed farmers to produce more food with fewer inputs. For example:

• Mechanization: Tractors and other machinery have drastically reduced the amount of manual labor required for farming, increasing both labor and land productivity. Mechanization has also enabled farmers to cultivate larger areas of land.
• Genetic modification and plant breeding: Advances in genetic engineering and plant breeding have led to the development of crop varieties that are more resistant to pests, diseases, and environmental stresses. These high-yielding varieties have been instrumental in increasing productivity, particularly in areas where environmental conditions are harsh.
• Precision agriculture: Precision agriculture involves using technology, such as GPS, sensors, and drones, to optimize farming practices. By precisely managing inputs like water, fertilizers, and pesticides, farmers can reduce waste and improve yields, thereby increasing productivity.

2. Soil Health and Fertility

Soil fertility is critical to agricultural productivity, as crops derive essential nutrients from the soil. The degradation of soil health due to over-farming, deforestation, erosion, and chemical overuse can lead to declining yields over time. Sustainable practices such as crop rotation, cover cropping, and organic farming help maintain soil fertility, while the use of fertilizers and soil amendments can improve productivity in areas with poor soil quality.

3. Water Management

Irrigation plays a crucial role in improving productivity in agriculture, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. Efficient water management systems, such as drip irrigation and sprinkler systems, allow farmers to deliver water precisely to crops, reducing waste and improving yields. Poor water management, on the other hand, can lead to problems such as salinization, waterlogging, and the depletion of water resources, all of which reduce agricultural productivity.

The impact of climate change on water availability is a growing concern for productivity in agriculture. Droughts, floods, and changing rainfall patterns can disrupt water supplies and lead to crop failures, threatening productivity in many parts of the world.

4. Labor Efficiency and Education

In many developing countries, agriculture remains highly labor-intensive. However, increasing labor productivity—through both mechanization and the education of farmers—can significantly improve output. Farmer education and extension services provide training on improved farming techniques, pest management, and resource conservation, which can boost productivity.

In more developed economies, labor productivity has increased due to mechanization, allowing fewer workers to manage larger farms. This transition from labor-intensive to capital-intensive farming has been a key factor in the growth of productivity in regions like North America and Europe.

5. Infrastructure

Infrastructure, such as roads, storage facilities, and transportation networks, plays a critical role in determining agricultural productivity. Good infrastructure ensures that farmers can access markets to sell their produce and obtain inputs like seeds and fertilizers. Poor infrastructure, on the other hand, can lead to inefficiencies, such as delays in transporting goods, post-harvest losses, and increased production costs, all of which negatively impact productivity.

6. Government Policies and Support

Government policies can either support or hinder productivity in agriculture. Policies that promote access to credit, research and development, extension services, and infrastructure development tend to improve agricultural productivity. Subsidies for fertilizers, seeds, and machinery can make it easier for farmers to adopt productivity-enhancing technologies.

However, some policies can have negative effects. For example, price controls, poorly designed subsidies, or restrictions on trade can distort agricultural markets and reduce incentives for farmers to invest in improving productivity. Similarly, land tenure issues, such as insecure property rights, can discourage long-term investments in land improvements.

7. Climate Change

Climate change poses a significant threat to agricultural productivity. Rising global temperatures, shifting weather patterns, and increasing frequency of extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, and storms can have detrimental effects on crop yields and livestock production. Regions that rely on rain-fed agriculture are particularly vulnerable to changes in precipitation patterns.

Adaptation strategies, such as developing climate-resilient crops, improving irrigation efficiency, and adopting sustainable farming practices, will be essential to maintain and improve agricultural productivity in the face of climate change. In some areas, the increasing use of climate-smart agriculture is helping farmers adapt to these new challenges by incorporating both productivity and sustainability goals into their farming practices.

Challenges and Constraints to Increasing Productivity

Despite advancements in technology and farming practices, several challenges continue to constrain agricultural productivity. These include:

• Resource scarcity: As the global population grows, there is increasing pressure on finite resources like arable land and freshwater. Efficient management of these resources is critical to ensuring sustained productivity.
• Pest and disease outbreaks: The spread of pests and diseases can severely damage crops and reduce productivity. Integrated pest management (IPM) and the development of pest-resistant crop varieties are important strategies for addressing these challenges.
• Access to markets and credit: In many developing countries, smallholder farmers struggle to access markets where they can sell their produce at fair prices. Additionally, limited access to credit prevents farmers from investing in productivity-enhancing technologies.
• Land degradation: Deforestation, overgrazing, and unsustainable farming practices can lead to land degradation, reducing the amount of arable land available for farming. Efforts to combat soil erosion, restore degraded lands, and promote sustainable land management practices are essential for improving productivity.

The Role of Sustainable Agriculture

The focus on sustainability is becoming increasingly important in discussions about agricultural productivity. Sustainable agriculture seeks to balance the need for increased food production with environmental conservation and social equity. Practices like agroforestry, conservation tillage, and organic farming aim to protect natural resources while maintaining or enhancing productivity.

One of the key challenges is to increase productivity without causing further environmental damage. Over-reliance on chemical inputs like fertilizers and pesticides can lead to soil degradation, water contamination, and loss of biodiversity. By adopting more sustainable practices, farmers can maintain long-term productivity while minimizing negative environmental impacts.

Conclusion

Productivity in agriculture is a critical determinant of global food security and economic development. It is influenced by a wide range of factors, from technological advancements and resource management to government policies and climate change. While significant progress has been made in increasing agricultural productivity over the past century, challenges such as climate change, resource scarcity, and environmental degradation continue to pose significant threats.

Future efforts to improve productivity must focus on integrating sustainable practices and technological innovations that not only boost yields but also conserve natural resources and mitigate the impacts of climate change. The role of government policy, infrastructure development, and farmer education will remain vital in achieving this balance and ensuring that agricultural productivity continues to grow in a way that is both equitable and sustainable.

Traditional agriculture refers to the age-old farming practices that have been developed and passed down through generations in rural communities. It is typically characterized by low-input, labor-intensive methods that rely on indigenous knowledge, natural resources, and locally available tools. While traditional agriculture has sustained communities for centuries, the modernization of agriculture, particularly during the 20th and 21st centuries, has drastically changed how food is produced. This process involves the adoption of new technologies, scientific advancements, and mechanization to improve efficiency, productivity, and sustainability.

The transition from traditional agriculture to modern agriculture has had profound implications for food security, economic development, environmental sustainability, and the livelihoods of farmers.

Characteristics of Traditional Agriculture

Traditional agriculture is often described as subsistence farming, where farmers produce food primarily for their own consumption rather than for commercial purposes. The key features of traditional agriculture include:

1. Low External Inputs

Traditional agriculture generally relies on minimal external inputs such as synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, or advanced machinery. Instead, farmers depend on natural fertilizers like animal manure, compost, and organic waste to enrich the soil. For pest and disease control, traditional farmers use natural remedies and methods passed down through local knowledge, such as intercropping or rotating crops to reduce the spread of pests.

2. Small Farm Sizes

Most traditional farms are small, often less than a few hectares, and are worked by family members. The small size of farms reflects the labor-intensive nature of traditional agriculture, which requires close attention to land management. These small plots are cultivated using simple tools like hoes, plows, and sickles.

3. Diverse Cropping Systems

Polyculture is a hallmark of traditional farming systems, where farmers grow multiple crops in the same field to maximize productivity and reduce risks. This contrasts with modern monoculture practices, where only one type of crop is grown over large areas. Traditional farmers often plant staple food crops alongside vegetables, fruits, legumes, and herbs, creating a diverse ecosystem that can be more resilient to environmental changes.

4. Labor-Intensive

Because traditional agriculture relies on manual labor rather than machinery, it is highly labor-intensive. Tasks like plowing, planting, weeding, and harvesting are performed by hand or with the help of animals like oxen or horses. This labor dependence makes traditional agriculture less productive in terms of output per worker but fosters a deep connection between the farmer and the land.

5. Local Knowledge and Cultural Practices

Traditional agriculture is deeply rooted in indigenous knowledge systems and cultural practices. Farmers possess a wealth of experience in managing local environments and coping with seasonal variations. Cultural traditions also influence the timing of agricultural activities, such as planting and harvesting, and these practices are often tied to religious or spiritual beliefs.

Challenges of Traditional Agriculture

While traditional agriculture has supported rural populations for centuries, it also faces several significant challenges:

• Low Productivity: Traditional agriculture typically produces lower yields per hectare compared to modern systems, primarily due to the lack of access to improved seeds, fertilizers, and technologies.
• Vulnerability to Environmental Changes: Traditional farmers are often more vulnerable to extreme weather events like droughts, floods, and pests due to their dependence on rain-fed agriculture and limited access to modern irrigation or pest control methods.
• Limited Market Access: Many traditional farmers grow food for their own consumption, but when they do sell surplus crops, they often face difficulties in accessing markets due to poor infrastructure, limited transport options, and a lack of information about market prices.
• Poverty and Subsistence Living: Because traditional agriculture is largely subsistence-based, many farmers struggle with poverty. They may not have enough income to invest in better inputs, technologies, or education for their families.

Modernization of Agriculture

The modernization of agriculture refers to the adoption of new technologies, methods, and innovations designed to improve agricultural efficiency, productivity, and sustainability. This transformation began in earnest during the 20th century, especially following the Green Revolution of the 1940s to 1960s, which brought high-yielding crop varieties, chemical fertilizers, and mechanization to many parts of the world. The key drivers and elements of agricultural modernization include:

1. Mechanization

One of the most visible aspects of modern agriculture is the widespread use of machinery, such as tractors, harvesters, plows, and irrigation systems. Mechanization reduces the labor required for farming and increases the scale at which agriculture can be practiced. For example, a tractor can plow a much larger area of land in a fraction of the time it would take using traditional hand tools. Mechanized irrigation systems also allow for better water management, reducing dependence on rainfall and increasing yields in arid regions.

2. Chemical Inputs

The use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides has been a cornerstone of modern agricultural productivity. Fertilizers provide crops with essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which are often deficient in soils. Pesticides protect crops from pests, diseases, and weeds, significantly reducing crop losses. While these chemical inputs have led to higher yields, they also raise concerns about environmental degradation, such as soil depletion, water contamination, and loss of biodiversity.

3. High-Yielding Varieties (HYVs)

The development and widespread adoption of high-yielding crop varieties (HYVs) during the Green Revolution revolutionized agriculture in countries like India, Mexico, and the Philippines. These varieties were engineered to produce higher yields, resist diseases, and mature faster than traditional varieties. Hybrid seeds and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are now common in modern agriculture, further boosting productivity.

4. Irrigation and Water Management

Modern irrigation systems such as drip irrigation, sprinklers, and pivot systems have significantly increased agricultural productivity by providing a reliable water supply to crops. Irrigation reduces the reliance on unpredictable rainfall, which is particularly important in dry regions. Efficient irrigation also conserves water by delivering it directly to the plant roots, reducing waste.

5. Precision Agriculture

Precision agriculture is a modern farming approach that uses data and technology to manage farm resources more efficiently. Technologies like GPS, drones, and sensors allow farmers to monitor soil conditions, weather patterns, and crop health in real-time. By applying water, fertilizers, and pesticides only where needed, precision agriculture reduces waste and maximizes yields. This approach has also been linked to more sustainable practices, as it minimizes the environmental impact of farming.

6. Biotechnology

Biotechnology plays a crucial role in modernizing agriculture. Through techniques like genetic engineering, scientists have developed crops that are resistant to pests, diseases, and environmental stresses such as drought or salinity. Genetically modified (GM) crops, such as pest-resistant cotton or herbicide-tolerant soybeans, are widely used in many countries and have contributed to increased productivity and reduced the need for chemical pesticides.

Benefits of Modernizing Agriculture

The modernization of agriculture has brought numerous benefits, including:

• Increased Productivity: The adoption of improved technologies, high-yielding seeds, and better management practices has led to significant increases in agricultural productivity. Modern farms produce more food per hectare of land than traditional farms, helping to meet the growing demand for food as the global population increases.
• Economic Growth: Agricultural modernization has contributed to economic growth by increasing farm incomes, generating employment in related industries (e.g., machinery manufacturing, agrochemicals), and promoting rural development. Countries that have modernized their agricultural sectors, such as Brazil and China, have seen rapid economic development.
• Food Security: By increasing crop yields, modern agriculture has helped alleviate hunger and malnutrition in many parts of the world. The Green Revolution, for example, is credited with preventing widespread famine in countries like India and Mexico by boosting cereal production.
• Reduction in Labor Intensity: Mechanization and technology have reduced the need for manual labor in farming, allowing farmers to manage larger areas of land and freeing up time for other activities. This has contributed to higher productivity and better quality of life for farmers.

Challenges of Agricultural Modernization

Despite the many benefits, the modernization of agriculture also poses significant challenges:

1. Environmental Degradation

The intensive use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and mechanized farming methods has led to environmental degradation. Overuse of fertilizers can lead to soil depletion, reducing its fertility over time, while pesticides may harm beneficial insects and lead to biodiversity loss. In addition, the large-scale irrigation required for modern farming can deplete water resources and cause salinization of the soil.

2. Inequality and Land Concentration

As agriculture modernizes, the consolidation of land becomes more common, with larger farms becoming more dominant. Smallholder farmers, who cannot afford to invest in new technologies or compete with larger commercial farms, often find themselves marginalized. This can lead to rural depopulation, increased economic inequality, and loss of livelihoods for small farmers.

3. Dependence on External Inputs

Modern agriculture is heavily dependent on external inputs such as chemical fertilizers, pesticides, hybrid seeds, and machinery. This creates a system where farmers may become dependent on multinational corporations for these essential inputs. The rising costs of these inputs can erode profit margins for farmers and make it difficult for them to maintain financial sustainability.

4. Social Displacement

The shift from traditional to modern agriculture can also cause social displacement. Mechanization reduces the demand for labor, and many rural workers may find themselves unemployed or forced to migrate to cities in search of work. This can lead to the breakdown of rural communities and loss of cultural practices associated with traditional farming.

Balancing Traditional and Modern Agriculture: The Role of Sustainable Agriculture

In recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the need to balance the benefits of modern agriculture with the preservation of traditional knowledge and the protection of the environment. Sustainable agriculture seeks to combine the best aspects of both traditional and modern practices to create farming systems that are productive, environmentally friendly, and socially inclusive.

Agroecology, organic farming, and permaculture are examples of sustainable farming practices that draw on traditional knowledge while incorporating modern scientific principles. These practices emphasize soil health, biodiversity, and water conservation, and seek to reduce reliance on chemical inputs.

Conclusion

The modernization of agriculture represents a fundamental transformation in the way food is produced, and it has brought about dramatic improvements in productivity, food security, and economic growth. However, this transition also comes with significant challenges, including environmental degradation, social displacement, and inequality. Balancing the benefits of modern agricultural technologies with the preservation of traditional practices and sustainable resource management will be essential for ensuring the long-term viability of agriculture.

As the global population continues to grow and the impacts of climate change become more pronounced, the need for sustainable approaches to agriculture will become increasingly urgent. Combining the strengths of traditional agriculture with the innovations of modern science offers a promising path forward for building a resilient, productive, and sustainable food system.

Agricultural biotechnology, also known as agritech, is an area of agricultural science involving the use of scientific tools and techniques, including genetic engineering, molecular markers, molecular diagnostics, vaccines, and tissue culture, to modify living organisms: plants, animals, and microorganisms. Crop biotechnology is one aspect of agricultural biotechnology which has been greatly developed upon in recent times. Desired trait are exported from a particular species of Crop to an entirely different species. These transgene crops possess desirable characteristics in terms of flavor, color of flowers, growth rate, size of harvested products and resistance to diseases and pests.

History

Farmers have manipulated plants and animals through selective breeding for decades of thousands of years in order to create desired traits. In the 20th century, a surge in technology resulted in an increase in agricultural biotechnology through the selection of traits like the increased yield, pest resistance, drought resistance, and herbicide resistance. The first food product produced through biotechnology was sold in 1990, and by 2003, 7 million farmers were utilizing biotech crops. More than 85% of these farmers were located in developing countries.

Crop modification techniques

Traditional crossbreeding has been used for centuries to improve crop quality and quantity. Crossbreeding mates two sexually compatible species to create a new and special variety with the desired traits of the parents. For example, the honeycrisp apple exhibits a specific texture and flavor due to the crossbreeding of its parents. In traditional practices, pollen from one plant is placed on the female part of another, which leads to a hybrid that contains genetic information from both parent plants. Plant breeders select the plants with the traits they’re looking to pass on and continue to breed those plants. Note that crossbreeding can only be utilized within the same or closely related species.

Mutations can occur randomly in the DNA of any organism. In order to create variety within crops, scientists can randomly induce mutations within plants. Mutagenesis uses radioactivity to induce random mutations in the hopes of stumbling upon the desired trait. Scientists can use mutating chemicals such as ethyl methanesulfonate, or radioactivity to create random mutations within the DNA. Atomic gardens are used to mutate crops. A radioactive core is located in the center of a circular garden and raised out of the ground to radiate the surrounding crops, generating mutations within a certain radius. Mutagenesis through radiation was the process used to produce ruby red grapefruits.

Polyploidy can be induced to modify the number of chromosomes in a crop in order to influence its fertility or size. Usually, organisms have two sets of chromosomes, otherwise known as a diploidy. However, either naturally or through the use of chemicals, that number of chromosomes can change, resulting in fertility changes or size modification within the crop. Seedless watermelons are created in this manner; a 4-set chromosome watermelon is crossed with a 2-set chromosome watermelon to create a sterile (seedless) watermelon with three sets of chromosomes.

Protoplast fusion is the joining of cells or cell components to transfer traits between species. For example, the trait of male sterility is transferred from radishes to red cabbages by protoplast fusion. This male sterility helps plant breeders make hybrid crops.

RNA interference (RNAIi) is the process in which a cell’s RNA to protein mechanism is turned down or off in order to suppress genes. This method of genetic modification works by interfering with messenger RNA to stop the synthesis of proteins, effectively silencing a gene.

Transgenics involves the insertion of one piece of DNA into another organism’s DNA in order to introduce new genes into the original organism. This addition of genes into an organism’s genetic material creates a new variety with desired traits. The DNA must be prepared and packaged in a test tube and then inserted into the new organism. New genetic information can be inserted with gene guns/biolistics. An example of a gene gun transgenic is the rainbow papaya, which is modified with a gene that gives it resistance to the papaya ringspot virus.

Genome editing is the use of an enzyme system to modify the DNA directly within the cell. Genome editing is used to develop herbicide resistant canola to help farmers control weeds.

Agricultural biotechnology has been used to improve the nutritional content of a variety of crops in an effort to meet the needs of an increasing population. Genetic engineering can produce crops with a higher concentration of vitamins. For example, golden rice contains three genes that allow plants to produce compounds that are converted to vitamin A in the human body. This nutritionally improved rice is designed to combat the world’s leading cause of blindness—vitamin A deficiency. Similarly, the Banana 21 project has worked to improve the nutrition in bananas to combat micronutrient deficiencies in Uganda. By genetically modifying bananas to contain vitamin A and iron, Banana 21 has helped foster a solution to micronutrient deficiencies through the vessel of a staple food and major starch source in Africa. Additionally, crops can be engineered to reduce toxicity or to produce varieties with removed allergens.

Genes and traits of interest for crops

One highly sought after trait is insect resistance. This trait increases a crop’s resistance to pests and allows for a higher yield. An example of this trait are crops that are genetically engineered to make insecticidal proteins originally discovered in (Bacillus thuringiensis). Bacillus thuringiensis is a bacterium that produces insect repelling proteins that are non-harmful to humans. The genes responsible for this insect resistance have been isolated and introduced into many crops. Bt corn and cotton are now commonplace, and cowpeas, sunflower, soybeans, tomatoes, tobacco, walnut, sugarcane, and rice are all being studied in relation to Bt.

Weeds have proven to be an issue for farmers for thousands of years; they compete for soil nutrients, water, and sunlight and prove deadly to crops. Biotechnology has offered a solution in the form of herbicide tolerance. Chemical herbicides are sprayed directly on plants in order to kill weeds and therefore competition, and herbicide resistant crops have to the opportunity to flourish.

Often, crops are afflicted by disease spread through insects (like aphids). Spreading disease among crop plants is incredibly difficult to control and was previously only managed by completely removing the affected crop. The field of agricultural biotechnology offers a solution through genetically engineering virus resistance. Developing GE disease-resistant crops now include cassava, maize, and sweet potato.

Agricultural biotechnology can also provide a solution for plants in extreme temperature conditions. In order to maximize yield and prevent crop death, genes can be engineered that help to regulate cold and heat tolerance. For example, tobacco plants have been genetically modified to be more tolerant to hot and cold conditions, with genes originally found in Carica papaya.^[7] Other traits include water use efficiency, nitrogen use efficiency and salt tolerance.

Quality traits include increased nutritional or dietary value, improved food processing and storage, or the elimination of toxins and allergens in crop plants.

Common GMO crops

Currently, only a small number of genetically modified crops are available for purchase and consumption in the United States. The USDA has approved soybeans, corn, canola, sugar beets, papaya, squash, alfalfa, cotton, apples, and potatoes. GMO apples (arctic apples) are non-browning apples and eliminate the need for anti-browning treatments, reduce food waste, and bring out flavor. The production of Bt cotton has skyrocketed in India, with 10 million hectares planted for the first time in 2011, resulting in a 50% insecticide application reduction. In 2014, Indian and Chinese farmers planted more than 15 million hectares of Bt cotton.

Safety testing and government regulations

Agricultural biotechnology regulation in the US falls under three main government agencies: The Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The USDA must approve the release of any new GMOs, EPA controls the regulation of insecticide, and the FDA evaluates the safety of a particular crop sent to market. On average, it takes nearly 13 years and $130 million of research and development for a genetically modified organism to come to market. The regulation process takes up to 8 years in the United States. The safety of GMOs has become a topic of debate worldwide, but scientific articles are being conducted to test the safety of consuming GMOs in addition to the FDA’s work. In one such article, it was concluded that Bt rice did not adversely affect digestion and did not induce horizontal gene transfer.