Indian National Movement & Constitutional Development 

Q & A 

By @Harshit Sharma

Q1. Who was the Governor general at the time of partition of India? 

Lord Mountbatten 

Q2. When was the communist party of India established? 

26 December 1925 

Q3. Techniques of Satyagraha. 

The major techniques of Satyagraha are non-cooperation, civil disobedience, fasting and strike. 

Q4. Write any two provisions of August offer (1940). 

The August Offer was an offer made by Viceroy Linlithgow in 1940. 

• A representative Indian body would be formed after the war to frame a constitution for India. Dominion status was the objective for India. 
• The Viceroy’s Executive Council would be expanded right away to include for the first time more Indians than whites. However, defense, finance and home portfolios were to remain with the British. 

Q5. Indian National Army. 

The Indian National Army was an armed force formed by Indian collaborators and Imperial Japan on 1 September 1942 in Southeast Asia during World War II. Its aim was to secure Indian independence from British rule. First this army was formed by Rash Bihari Bose and then handed over to Subhash Chandra Bose. 

Q6. What was August offer. 

It said that support for the war would be provided if power was transferred to an interim government in India. Then, the Viceroy Linlithgow made a set of proposals called the ‘August offer’. 

Q7. Dandi March. 

The Salt March, also known as the Salt Satyagraha, Dandi March and the Dandi Satyagraha, was an act of nonviolent civil disobedience in colonial India led by Mahatma Gandhi. The twenty-four-day march lasted from 12 March 1930 to 6 April 1930 as a direct action campaign of tax resistance and nonviolent protest against the British salt monopoly. Another reason for this march was that the Civil Disobedience Movement needed a strong inauguration that would inspire more people to follow Gandhi’s example. 

Q8. Write two objectives of Congress Socialist Party. 

• CSP was a socialist group within the Indian National Congress (INC). 
• It was founded in 1934 by socialists such as Jayaprakash Narayan and Acharya Narendra Dev. 
• After the suspension of the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1934, some Congress members decided to enter into legislatures and work for the Congress’ cause within the govt. They were known as Constitutionalists. 
• Some socialists thought this would erode the revolutionary character of the Congress. So, they had decided to form a socialist party within the Congress named Congress Socialist Party (CSP). 

Objectives of CSP 

• Independence (freedom from British rule) and socialism were the twin objectives of the Congress Socialist Party. 
• For the attainment of Independence, the congress socialists joined hands with Anti-imperialists and non-socialists forces within in the Congress. Jay Prakash Narayan said: “Our work within congress is governed by the policy of developing it into a true anti-imperialist body”. He also warned his co-workers in 1935: “Nothing should be done which may antagonize the genuinely nationalist elements and drive them to joined hands with the compromise-seeking right wing.” 
• But the ultimate objective of the congress socialists was to establish a socialist society in India and they worked to secure the acceptance of their programme by the Indian National Congress. 

Q9. Round table conference. 

The three Round Table Conferences of 1930–1932 were a series of peace conferences organized by the British Government and Indian political personalities to discuss constitutional reforms in India. These started in November 1930 and ended in December 1932. They were conducted as per the recommendation of Muhammad Ali Jinnah to Viceroy Lord Irwin and Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, and by the report submitted by the Simon Commission in May 1930. Demands for Swaraj or self-rule in India had been growing increasingly strong. B. R. Ambedkar, Jinnah, Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru, V. S. Srinivasa Sastri, Sir Muhammad Zafrulla Khan, K. T. Paul and Mirabehn were key participants from India. By the 1930s, many British politicians believed that India needed to move towards dominion status. However, there were significant disagreements between the Indian and the British political parties that the Conferences would not resolve. The key topic was about constitution and India which was mainly discussed in that conference. There were three Round Table Conferences from 1930 to 1932. 

Q10. Write any two features of Wavell plant (1945). 

Lord Wavell, who became the Viceroy in 1943, was charged with presenting a formula for the future government of India that would be acceptable to both the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League 

In May 1945 Wavell visited London and discussed his ideas with the British Government. These London talks resulted in the formulation of a definite plan of action which was officially made public simultaneously on 14 June 1945 by L.S. Amery, the Secretary of State for India. The Wavell Plan proposed the following: 

• The Viceroy’s Executive Council was to have all Indian members except the Viceroy himself and the Commander-in-Chief. 
• The council was to have a ‘balanced representation’ of all Indians including ‘caste-Hindus’, Muslims, Depressed Classes, Sikhs, etc. Muslims were given 6 out of 14 members which accounted for more than their share of the population (25%). 

• The Viceroy/Governor-General would still have the power of veto but its use would be minimal. 
• The foreign affairs portfolio would be transferred from the Governor-General to an Indian member. The defence would be handled by a British general until the full transfer of power was made. 
• A conference would be convened by the Viceroy to get a list of all the members recommended to the Council from all parties concerned. In case a joint list was not agreed upon, separate lists would be taken from the parties. This was to be the Shimla Conference. 

Q11. Poona Pact, 1932. 

The Poona Pact was an agreement between Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. B. R. Ambedkar on behalf of Dalits, depressed classes, and upper caste Hindu leaders on the reservation of electoral seats for the depressed classes in the legislature of British India in 1932. It was made on 24 September 1932 at Yerwada Central Jail in Poona, India. It was signed by Dr. Ambedkar on behalf of the depressed classes and by Madan Mohan Malviya on behalf of Hindus, Faraz Shah, Sana Ejaz and Gandhi as a means to end the fast that Gandhi was undertaking in jail as a protest against the decision made by British prime minister Ramsay MacDonald to give separate electorates to depressed classes for the election of members of provincial legislative assemblies in British India. 

Q12. Bardoli Satyagrah. 

The Bardoli Satyagraha, in the state of Gujarat, India during the British Raj, was a major episode of civil disobedience and revolt in the Indian Independence Movement on 12 June 1928. The movement was eventually led by Vallabhbhai Patel, and its success gave rise to Patel becoming one of the main leaders of the independence movement. In 1925, the taluka of Bardoli in Gujarat suffered financial troubles. However, the government of the Bombay Presidency had raised the tax rate by 30% that year, and despite petitions from civic groups, it refused to cancel the raise in the face of the calamities. The situation for the farmers was grave enough that they barely had enough property and crops to pay off the tax, let alone feed themselves afterwards. 

Q13. Young India (Patrika). 

Young India was a weekly paper or journal in English started by Mahatma Gandhi. Through this work, he desired to popularise India’s demand of self-government or Swaraj. 

It was published by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi from 1919 to 1931. 

Gandhi wrote various quotations in this journal that inspired many. He used Young India to spread his unique ideology and thoughts regarding the use of nonviolence in organising movements and to urge readers to consider, organise, and plan for India’s eventual independence from Britain. 

In 1933 Gandhi started publishing a weekly newspaper, Harijan, in English. Harijan, which means “People of God”, and was also Gandhi’s term for the untouchable caste – lasted until 1948. During this time Gandhi also published Harijan Bandu in Gujarati, and Harijan Sevak in Hindi. All three papers focused on India’s and the world’s social and economic problems. 

Q14. Examine the contributions of Social and Religion Movements in the rise of Nationalism in India. 

The impacts of the socio-religious reform movements were huge and long-lasting especially against social evils such as atrocities on women through purdah, child marriage, hypergamy, dowry and sex-based inequality. The reform movements of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were not solely religious in nature. It was a social-religious movement. Reformers such as Bengal’s Rammohan Roy, Gopal Hari Deshmukh (Lokhitavadi) of Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh’s Veeresalingam called for religious reform with the ultimate motive of political benefit and social progress. Rise of nationalism and a feeling of patriotism were other byproducts of these movements. It had an everlasting impact on the nation. 

Socio-Religious Reform Movements – Impact 

Creation of National Awakening 

• Many Indians were aided in coming to terms with the modern world by religious reform groups. 
• The intellectuals’ views and activities were either directly or indirectly tied to the task of nation-building and reconstruction. 
• In truth, the social reform movement was not an isolated phenomenon; it was influenced by broader national political and economic factors. 

• These movements paved the way for the rise of Indian nationalism and, finally, the war for independence. 
• The socio-religious reform movements were, in some ways, a precursor to nationalism. 

Q15. Write a note on the Revolutionary movement in Indian national movement. 

The emergence of revolutionary ideology in India during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century was the result of several internal and external influences working on the minds of the youth. 

Early phase of revolutionary movement in India was in Bengal, Maharashtra, Punjab, U.P., Orissa, Bihar and Madras provinces, but it predominantly operated in Bengal, Maharashtra and Punjab as these regions were more politically active than other parts of the country. 

The reasons behind rise of revolutionary movement: 

• Nationalism among youth: Most vital factor which contributed to amplify the spirit of nationalism among the countrymen was the ‘economic exploitation’ of Indians by the British Government and the Partition of Bengal. 
• Failure of Moderate and extremist congress: Younger element was not ready to retreat after the decline of national militancy phase. Fallout of Swadeshi and Boycott Movement was the immediate reason. 
• Leadership’s failure to tap revolutionary energies of the youth. 

• Government repression left no peaceful avenues open for the protest. 
• Inspired from the individual heroic action on the lines of Irish nationalists or Russian nihilists. 
• Ideological appeal of ideas: Freedom through revolution, heroic action, supreme sacrifice, assassinate unpopular British officials, strike terror in hearts of rulers and arouse people to expel the British with force attracted the new nationalists. 

Impacts of revolutionary movement: 

• The era of revolutionary terrorism began and very soon secret societies of the revolutionaries came up all over the country. The Anusilan Samiti, the most famous and long-lasting secret society, with its headquarters at Calcutta created revolutionary centres all over India. 

• Their activities took two forms- the assassination of oppressive officials, traitors and informers, and dacoities to raise funds for the purchase of arms, etc. 
• It had its impact on the Congress strategy to involve the youths in the short term programme of rural reconstruction. 
• Their sacrifices aroused the emotions of the Indian people and thus helped the building up of the national consciousness which certainly contributed to gaining independence. 
• It could not mobilize the masses. In fact, it had no base among the people. They believed in individual heroism. 
• This movement failed to achieve its object of independence. With the death of Chandrasekhar Azad in a shooting encounter in a public park at Allahabad in February 1931, the revolutionary movement virtually came to an end in Punjab, U.P. and Bihar. 
• Surya Sen’s martyrdom also marked an end to the revolutionary activity in Bengal. A process of rethinking on the part of the revolutionaries lodged in jails and in Andaman began. A large number of revolutionaries turned to Marxism. 

Decline of Revolutionaries post 1930’s: 

• Despite gaining popularity and a dedicated following, both the terrorist and the revolutionary movements could not achieve their objectives of freeing India from the British. This was because 
• There was no central, all-India level organization which could control the activities in an organised manner; 
• These movements appealed to the youngsters who had faced the hostilities of the British rule, but the mass following in the rural belt was unavailable; 

• Germany, which promised arms and funds to be used against Britain could not deliver; 
• The US entry and its subsequent dominance in the world war demoralised Germany and the allies to be of help to the Indian cause; 
• Montagu’s package of self-governance for the Indians took the fizz out of the revolutionary activists; 
• The congress party and other upper middle-class politicians and leaders always disapproved of the ways of these movements; and 
• Gandhi’s entry into the political scene of India marked a revolution in the form of satyagraha, which contributed to the decline of the revolutionary and terrorist activities. 

Conclusion: 

Although they had failed to attain set objectives of attaining independence through armed revolt, they were successful in arousing people and remove the fear of authority from their minds and strike terror in the heart of the rulers. 

Q16. Why was Quit India movement started? Discuss its importance. 

Launched by Mahatma Gandhi on August 8, 1942, the Quit India Movement precipitated the exit of the British. The movement was launched at the Bombay session of the All-India Congress Committee and featured Gandhi’s clarion call to end British Rule. Gandhi gave a boisterous speech at Mumbai’s Gowalia Tank Maidan, which is now known as August Kranti Maidan, and gave the famous call of “Do or Die.” 

Quit India Movement also saw Aruna Asaf Ali hoisting the Indian flag at the Gowalia Tank Maidan. 

The Quit India Movement had three phases. The first phase involved urban revolt, strikes, and boycotts. The second phase witnessed a major peasant rebellion, marked by destruction of all visible symbols of British Raj such as railway tracks and stations, telegraph wires and poles, and government buildings. 

The last phase saw the formation of parallel governments in isolated pockets. 

The failure of the Cripps Mission, which offered Dominion Status to India, was the main factor behind the movement. The Quit India Movement was successful due to widespread anti-British sentiment and growing popularity of absolute independence or Purna Swaraj. Several small movements and militant outbursts aligned with the movement. 

The impact of the movement can be gauged by the fact that several senior leaders of the Indian National Congress like Mahatma Gandhi, Abdul Kalam Azad, Jawaharlal Nehru and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel were immediately arrested by the British. 

Even though the Quit India Movement resonated with the masses, the British refused to grant immediate independence to India and stated that it could only be granted after the conclusion of World War II. To recognize the importance of the Quit India Movement, Kranti Diwas is celebrated on August 9. 

Importance of movement: – 

• It kept the congress united. 
• Massive set of disturbance across the length and breadth of India. 
• British realised it would not be able to continue governing India for long and therefore started thinking of ways to exit India in a peaceful and respectable manner. 

• The movement got support from vast variety of people : students, teachers, labourers, business people, villagers, government officials, policemen, ladies – all took part in it. 
• Uniting India: Gradual and slow transition from miniscale minority of freedom seekers to mass organization of freedom seekers. 

Q17. Examine the India Independence Act. 

The Indian Independence Act was passed by the British parliament in 1947. It effectively ended British rule over India. The country was partitioned into India and Pakistan (east and west). The act also repealed the use of the title ‘Emperor of India’ by the British Crown. 

The Indian Independence Act was passed by the British parliament on July 5, 1947. Its aim was to transfer the power from the British Crown to the newly independent dominions of India and Pakistan. It terminated British suzerainty over Indian affairs. 

The Act was based on the Mountbatten Plan formulated by Louis Mountbatten, the last Governor-General of India. He had formulated the plan to transfer the power to the hands of the natives from the British Crown. The Act was the result of years of struggle and resistance against the British occupation by the Indians. Lord Mountbatten, however, continued as the Governor-General of newly independent India till 1948. 

The following are the salient features of the Indian Independence Act 1947: 

• The Act declared India as a sovereign and independent state. 

• It also made provisions for the partition of the Indian state into two separate dominions of India and Pakistan on grounds of religious differences. 
• The position of the Secretary of States for India was abolished. 
• The office of the Viceroy was also abolished and the Act initiated for the providence of two separate Governor-Generals to be appointed for the dominions of India and Pakistan on the advice of the British Cabinet. 
• The Constituent Assemblies of both the dominions were authorised to formulate their respective constitutions and also to repeal any law of the British Parliament formulated for the Indian state, including the Independence Act itself. 
• The Constituent Assemblies were empowered to act as legislative bodies for their respective dominions till the time they could formulate a constitution for their state. 

• It granted authority to the princely states to join either of the dominions or remain independent. 
• The governance of each dominion was to be done on the basis of the Government of India Act, of 1935. 
• The British Monarch no longer had the authority to veto or ask for the bills of the Indian state. 
• The Governor-General of each dominion had to act on the advice of the council. 

The Radcliffe Commission was immediately appointed following the Act to draw up boundaries between the two dominions. The borders were drawn based on religious differences. The states of Punjab and Bengal were divided between the two dominions.  

Lord Louis Mountbatten became the Governer-General of India, while Muhammad Ali Jinnah became the Governer-General of Pakistan. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru became the prime minister of India, while Liaqat Ali Khan became his Pakistani counterpart. 

Q18. Explain the main provisions of Cabinet Mission Plan. 

The Second World War came to an end on 10th August, 1945. After that general elections were held in England and Labour Party headed by Clement Attlee came out victorious. The British government announced in 1946 that they were willing to end their rule over India. For this purpose, a Cabinet Mission was sent to hold negotiations with the Indian leaders on the transfer of power. 

The Mission was consisting of three cabinet ministers like the Secretary of State Pathick Lawrence, President of Board of Trade Sir Stafford Cripps, and First Lord of the Adminality A.V. Alexander was sent to India. The Mission reached New Delhi on March 24, 1946. Members of the Mission opened negotiations with the Indian leaders. 

Main Provisions of the Cabinet Mission Plan: 

The Cabinet Mission proposed two-tiered federal plan which was expected to maintain national unity while conceding the largest measure of regional autonomy: 

(i) There was to be a federation of the provinces and the States, with the federal central controlling only defence, foreign affairs and communications. 

(ii) At the same time, individual provinces could form regional unions to which they could surrender by mutual agreement some of their powers. 

(iii) There would be three groups of provinces (i) Group ‘A’ was to include Madras, Bombay, U.P., Bihar, Central Province and Orissa (ii) Group ‘B* was to comprise Punjab, Sindh, N.W.F.P. and British Baluchistan (Muslim majority in most of the areas) (iii) Group ‘C’ was to include Bengal and Assam. 

These groups would draft their own constitutions in consultation with their respective provinces included in each group. 

(iv) A Constituent Assembly consisting of 389 members-292 from provinces, 4 from territories governed by Chief Commissioners and 93 from Indian Princely States would draft the Constitution of India. 

(v) An interim government at the Central consisting of representatives of all the communities, provinces would be installed on the basis of parity between the representatives of the Hindus and Muslims. 

Q19. Discuss the role of left movement in the struggle for freedom. 

The Leftists played their own part in freedom struggle of the country, along with the Rightists, who of course dominated the show with the result that the contribution of the Leftists was not much appreciated. 

The rightists on the whole believe that existing system is not very unsatisfactory and that it can be reformed with the help of introduction of reforms. Thus, they do not feel the need and necessity of taking radical measures for changing it. 

They favour status quo and are opposed to total transformation of the system particularly by violent means. Because of their these views they are called conservative and reactionary. Those who are opposed to these views are non-status quoists or are not opposed to bringing changes even by violent means are called Leftists. 

They also favour more participation of the people in governmental activities. They do not favour piece meal reforms but are of the view that far-reaching changes should be introduced in the existing system in one go. 

On the other hand the Rightists wish to preserve what Leftists wish to change. The extreme rightists are opposed to every change and wish to preserve the existing system at all costs, whereas extreme Leftists are revolutionary and radical in their approach. 

In so far as India’s freedom struggle is concerned leftism means those persons who had anti-imperialist approach and had definite feelings for welfare of the weaker and oppressed sections of society. 

They wanted that India should not struggle for Dominion Status but for full freedom of the country. Subhash Chandra Bose who represented the leftists in the Congress party said in 1940 that, “Our main task at this stage is to end imperialism and to win national independence for the Indian people. When freedom comes of age national reconstruction will commence and that will be the socialist phase of our movement.” 

About solving India’s socio-economic and other problems he said, “I have no doubt in my mind that our chief national problems relating to eradication of poverty, illiteracy and disease and to scientific production and distribution can be effectively tackled only along socialist lines.” 

The Leftists on the whole are opposed to existing state system, prevailing socio-economic order and they do not make, any difference between state and party. They wish replacement of existing order by a new order and stand for revolution. They favour drastic changes in existing property laws and for ending exploitation of peasants. 

They plead abolition of zamindari system. Similarly, to end exploitation of industrial workers they stand for industrialisation of industries. In national freedom struggle they have militant and revolutionary approach and believe that it is not only a political but also socio-economic struggle. 

They also are of the opinion that such a struggle is always fought on class basis. They encourage agitations, strikes and demonstrations and strongly plead that Leftists should have close link with international socialist movements. 

In India the Leftists particularly wanted to capture the leadership of Indian National Congress. While living in the Congress they wanted to change its character. They did not challenge ideology of Nehru and Mahatma Gandhi and liked labour movement as it was developing in England and Russia. 

They were particularly influenced by the revolutionaries of Russia who successfully brought a revolution in their own country. Nehru very eagerly wanted that Congress party should go near the masses so that they understand and appreciate the meaning and objectives of country’s freedom struggle. They tried to mix political objectives with socio-economic objectives of our freedom struggle. 

Q20. Discuss the main provisions of Government of India Act, 1935. 

The Government of India Act was passed by the British parliament in 1935 and came into effect in 1937. It was based on a report by a Joint Select Committee, led by Lord Linlithgow, set up the two houses of the British parliament. The report, in turn, was the result of the Joint Committee’s scrutiny of the ‘White Paper’ – a scheme of constitutional proposals – prepared by the British government close on the heels of the Round Table conferences. 

It originally received royal assent in August 1935. It was the longest Act of (British) Parliament ever enacted until Greater London Authority Act 1999 surpassed it. Because of its length, the Act was retroactively split by the Government of India Act, 1935 into two separate Acts: 

• The Government of India Act, 1935, having 321 sections and 10 schedules. 
• The Government of Burma Act, 1935 having 159 sections and 6 schedules. 

The Act led to: 

• Separation of Burma from British India, effective from 1 April 1937. 

The Act was written in a legal style, organised around 11 ‘Parts’ and 10 ‘Schedules’. Each part was further divided into chapters. It is considered to be one of the longest pieces of legislation passed by the British parliament – parliamentary debates around the Act involved 2000 speeches. 

Provisions: 

• It provided for the establishment of an All-India federation consisting of provinces and princely states as units. 
• It divided the powers between the centre and units in terms of three lists- Federal list, provincial list and the concurrent list. Residuary powers were given to the Viceroy. However, this federation never fructified since princely states did not join it. 

• It abolished dyarchy in the provinces and introduced ‘provincial autonomy’ in its place 
• The act introduced responsible government in provinces, that is, the governor was required to act with the advice of ministers responsible to the provincial legislature 
• It provided for the adoption of dyarchy at the center. However, this provision did not come into effect at all 
• Bicameralism was introduced in six provinces- Bengal, Bombay Madras, Bihar, Assam and the United Provinces 
• Separate electorates was further extended to depressed classes, women and labour 

• Council of India which was established as per the 1858 act was abolished. The secretary of state was instead provided with a team of advisors. 
• The act provided for setting up- Federal public service commission, provincial public service commission, joint public service commission, federal court, Reserve Bank of India. 

Q21. Examine the provisions proposals of Cripps Mission. Why did it fail? 

Cripps Mission 
In March 1942, a mission headed by Stafford Cripps was sent to India with constitutional proposals to seek Indian support for the war. Stafford Cripps was a left-wing Labourite, the leader of the House of Commons and a member of the British War Cabinet who had actively supported the Indian national movement. 
 
Why Cripps Mission was Sent 

• Because of the reverses suffered by Britain in South-East Asia, the Japanese threat to invade India seemed real now and Indian support became crucial. 
• There was pressure on Britain from the Allies (USA, USSR, China) to seek Indian cooperation. 
• Indian nationalists had agreed to support the Allied cause if substantial power was transferred immediately and complete independence given after the war. 

Provisions: 

• Setting up of an Indian dominion. This dominion would have the freedom to remain with the British Commonwealth or to secede from it. It would also be at liberty to take part in international organisations. 

• A Constituent Assembly would be formed to frame a new constitution for the country. This Assembly would have members elected by the provincial assemblies and also nominated by the princes. 
• Any province unwilling to join the Indian dominion could form a separate union and have a separate constitution. 
• The transfer of power and the rights of minorities would be safeguarded by negotiations between the Constituent Assembly and the British government. 
• In the meantime, until this new constitution came into force, India’s defence would be controlled by the British and the powers of the Governor-General would remain unaltered. 

Why Cripps Mission Failed 
The Cripps Mission proposals failed to satisfy Indian nationalists and turned out to be merely a propaganda device for the consumption of the US and the Chinese. The Congress objected to the offer of dominion status instead of a provision for complete independence. 
The failure of the Cripps Mission to solve the constitutional deadlock exposed Britain’s unchanged attitude on constitutional advance and made it clear that any more silence would be tantamount to accepting the British right to decide the fate of Indians without consulting them. 
After Cripps’ departure, Gandhi framed a resolution calling for British withdrawal and a non-violent non-cooperation movement against any Japanese invasion. 
 
In July 1942, the Congress Working Committee met at Wardha and resolved that it would authorise Gandhi to take charge of the non-violent mass movement. The resolution is generally referred to as the ‘Quit India’ resolution. The Quit India Resolution was ratified at the Congress meeting at Gowalia Tank, Bombay, on August 8, 1942. 
 
Major Developments After The Movement 
Wavell Plan: Although the war in Europe came to an end in May 1945, the Japanese threat still remained. The Conservative government in Britain led by Churchill was keen to reach a solution on the constitutional question in India. The viceroy, Lord Wavell was permitted to start negotiations with Indian leaders. Congress leaders were released from jails in June 1945. The idea was to reconstruct the governor-general’s executive council pending the preparation of a new constitution. For this purpose, a conference was convened by the viceroy, Lord Wavell, at Shimla in June 1945. 
 
The Indian National Army: The Japanese handed over the Indian prisoners of war to Mohan Singh who tried to recruit them into an Indian National Army. The INA got a boost with the outbreak of the Quit India Movement in India. The second phase began with the arrival of Subhash Bose in Singapore. 

Q16. Examine the role of Mahatma Gandhi in National Movement. 

The advent of Mahatma Gandhi was an indelible landmark in the history of the national movement. He energized the national movement by resurrecting the dormant ideology of Truthfulness and Non-Violence and compelled the British to leave the country at their earliest. Mahatma Gandhi, a reformist of the 19th century, transformed the nature of the national movement by its thoughts, workings, and movement. 

 Mahatma Gandhi returned to India from South Africa in 1915. Before his arrival, the national movement had a different nature, but after 1915, the movement took on a mass movement. 

Gandhi was born at Porbandar in Gujarat on 2nd Oct 1869. At the age of 18, he went to England and qualified for the bar. He learned the first lesson of truth and non-violence from Rajchandra Ravjibhai. He went to South Africa in connection with the professional work of his friend. In South Africa, he put into practice the weapon of satyagraha against racism and exploitation of people of color under colonial power. He also developed the self-confidence to lead a struggle. In 1915, he returned to India after winning a great name. Gandhi entered into the political field of India with the satyagraha in Champaran in Bihar in 1917. 

Birth of ideology of Non-Violence, Satyagraha: 

Gandhi’s ideology of non-violence and satyagraha changed the course of the national movement in a different direction. Before the arrival of Gandhi, these principles were not deep-rooted in the people and the struggle for freedom was directionless. It was after the advent of Gandhi that the Freedom struggle took a meaningful direction. Over time, these principles only helped India to attain freedom against British rule. Gandhi was very strict in his principles, and the non-cooperation movement was an example of this. The principle of satyagraha compelled the British to leave India. 

The Champaran satyagraha emerged as a successful struggle against the oppression of Britishers in India. The government was forced to set up a committee to study the problems of the farmers. In 1918, he intervened in a dispute between the workers and the mill owners of Ahmedabad and undertook fast unto death to force a compromise. The mill owners agreed to raise 35 percent wages of workers. He also supported the cause of the peasants of Kheda against the collection of land revenue after the crops failed. These three events brought Gandhi into the limelight. Gandhi’s weapons of Satyagraha, Non-Violence, and truth, proved to be effective in attaining the purpose. 

Gandhi and his Mass Movement:  

In January 1919, the British government passed the Rowlatt Act. This act authorized the government to imprison any person without trial and conviction in a court of law. This was in the course of the policy of the government of India to suppress the revolutionaries. Mahatma Gandhi declared a satyagraha campaign and formed a Satyagraha Sabha whose members pledged to disobey the act non violently. Meanwhile, Gandhi suspended the movement due to violence at some places. It brought no success, but it certainly taught people to make peaceful sacrifices for the nation. 

Gandhi mobilized people from all over India during the Civil Disobedience movement (Salt Satyagraha) of 1930, Gandhi knew that salt was of vital importance to every section of society and tax on it impacts them. Such a step (Salt Satyagraha) from Gandhi helped to give a different direction to the movement. 

Aroused Self Confidence of the people: 

After the entry of Gandhi into national politics, India witnessed three victories in the year 1917-18 at Champaran, Kheda, and Ahmedabad. This regained the lost confidence of the Indians and made them feel they could also fight for their freedom without the help of modern arms and ammunition. 

Inspired by nationalist feeling: 

The Gandhian movement inspired nationalist feelings among the people. During the time of the non-cooperation movement, people boycotted schools and colleges and represented the interests of the nation. It united people from all sections to fight for India’s Independence. He led a non-violent civil disobedience movement against the Britisher’s injustice meted at the Indians. The active participation of the people inculcated nationalist feelings among the people. 

Hindu Muslim unity: 

Gandhian phase led to emphasis on Hindus-Muslims Unity. He very well knew that India could not attain freedom without the unity of Hindus-Muslims. Gandhi viewed the Khilafat movement as a golden opportunity for bringing Hindus and Muslims together on the national front. In order to involve the Muslims in the freedom struggle, Gandhi joined the national movement with the non-cooperation movement. Gandhi always laid stress on communal harmony. 

Involvement of different groups of people: 

Gandhi knew that India cannot attain freedom without the involvement and support of every section of society. Before the involvement of Gandhi, the movement was just confined to Congress-dominated people but later the movement witnessed different sections of the society. 

Lower class: Gandhi very well knew the importance of the Harijans or dalit person in the freedom movement of India. He always spoke of the upliftment of the Harijans. In 1932, he founded an organization to eradicate Untouchability to improve the social condition of the lower and backward classes. 

Women: Even though India was a very patriarchal society, Gandhian movements played an important role in organizing women’s social, economic, and political spheres. The national movement during the Gandhian phase empowered women to come forward. Women took an active part in the non-cooperation and civil disobedience movements. Women played a unique role in promoting Khadi, such as Gandhi’s manufacturing program, which ended the anarchy. Anasuya Sarabhai accompanied Gandhi on his travels and took an active part in the 1918 strike on the textile industry in Ahmedabad. Sarojini Naidu – Led the raid on the Dharasana salt factory during the Civil Disobedience Movement after Gandhi’s arrest. 

Business Class: Gandhian phase witnessed the involvement of the business class in the movement. He emphasized the development of cottage and village industries. It was seen that these cottage industries were on the rise and people became more self-reliant. This helped the Indians be less dependent on imports from other countries and the Britishers. 

Ultimately, it can be said that the Gandhian movement helped India attain freedom. Gandhi through his nonviolent method shook the foundation of British rule and defeated the great empire. 

Q17. What do you understand by Civil Disobedience? Discuss the technique and achievements of Civil Disobedience movement in India. 

Civil disobedience is the active, professed refusal of a citizen to obey certain laws, demands, orders or commands of a government (Or any other authority). By some definitions, civil disobedience has to be nonviolent to be called “civil”. Hence, civil disobedience is sometimes equated with peaceful protests or nonviolent resistance. 

Introduction 

• Civil disobedience is the active, professed refusal of a citizen to obey certain laws, demands, orders or commands of a government 
• In India, Civil disobedience movement was a landmark event in the Indian Nationalist movement. In many ways, the civil disobedience movement is credited for paving the way for freedom in India 

Background 

• The abrupt withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement by Gandhi after the Chauri Chaura incident of February 1922, had a demoralising effect on many Congress leaders and led to a sharp decline in the national movement 
• The Swarajist programme of wrecking dyarchy from within, petered out into council and municipal politicking. 
• The ‘No Changer’ group which emphasised upon Gandhian Constructive Work in villages remained scattered and kept themselves aloof from the political developments. 
• The remarkable Hindu-Muslim unity of the Non-Cooperation Khilafat days dissolved into widespread communal riots in the mid-1920s 

• Negotiations with Jinnah over the Nehru Report plan for an alternative constitution broke down in 1927-28 largely because of Hindu Mahasabha opposition and Jinnah’s obstinacy in relation to it 
• Even though the Hindu-Muslim Unity were never regained, there were many signs of growth of anti-imperialist movement from 1928 onwards, as follows: 

• Demonstration and hartals in towns in the course of the boycott of the Simon Commission 
• Militant communist led workers movement in Bombay and Calcutta which alarmed Indian businessmen and British officials and capitalists alike 
• The revival of revolutionary groups in Bengal and Northern India (with Bhagat Singh’s HSRA introducing a new secular and socialistic tone) 
• Peasant movements in various regions, particularly the successful Bardoli Satyagraha led by Vallabhbhai Patel in Gujarat in 1928 against the enhancement of land revenue 

• Also, during this period when the Congress Left was emerging, under Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Bose slogans of Purna Swaraj rather than of only Dominion Status were voiced. 
• Further, there existed certain political and Economic tensions between British Domination and Indian interests; some of which are as follows: 

• Contradictions were enormously sharpened by the impact of the World Depression which set in from late 1929. Business groups were not happy with the British tariff policy. Lancashire textile imports were going up again, and there were growing conflicts in Calcutta between the Birlas and British Jute interests, and in Bombay over coastal shipping. 
• The workers facing large scale retrenchment started agitations with unprecedented militancy and organization. 
• Rural tensions were sharpened by stagnation in agrarian production and by British efforts to enhance land revenue in Ryotwari areas in the late 1920s-till the Bardoli victory halted such endeavours permanently 

Civil Disobedience Movement (1930 -1931) 

• The Lahore Congress (1929) left the choice of the precise methods of non-violent struggle for Purna Swaraj to Gandhi 
• It was resolved that a Manifesto or pledge of Independence would be taken all over India by as many people as possible on 26 January 1930. 
• On this day Civil disobedience was supposed to commence and It was declared Independence Day 

Gandhi’s Efforts 

• Gandhi was still not sure of his action. Before launching the movement he once again tried for compromise Government. He placed ‘eleven points‘ of administrative reform and stated that if Lord Irwin accepted them there would be no need for agitation 
• The important demands were: 

• The rupee-Sterling ratio should be reduced 
• Land revenue should be reduced by half and made a subject of legislative control 
• Salt tax should be abolished and also the government salt monopoly 
• Salaries of the highest grade services should be reduced by half 
• Military expenditure should be reduced by 50% to begin with 

• Protection for Indian textiles and coastal shipping 
• All Political prisoners should be discharged 

Beginning of the Movement: Dandi March 

• Gandhi took the decision to start the movement. On 12 March 1930 Gandhi started the Historic Salt March from his Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi beach accompanied by his 78 selected followers. 
• There Gandhi and his followers broke the law by manufacturing salt from the sea. The Programme of the movement was as follows: 

1. a) Salt law should be violated everywhere. 
2. b) Students should leave colleges and government servants should resign from service. 
3. c) Foreign clothes should be burnt. 
4. d) No taxes should be paid to the government. 
5. e) Women should stage a Dharna at liquor shops, ctc. 

• Thus, the historic march, marking the launch of the Civil Disobedience Movement, began on March 12, and Gandhi broke the salt law by picking up a lump of salt at Dandi on April 6 

Spread of Movement 

• Once the way was cleared by Gandhi’s ritual at Dandi, defiance of the salt laws started all over the country 

• Gandhi’s arrest came on May 4, 1930 when he had announced that he would lead a raid on Dharasana Salt Works on the west coast 
• The onset of Monsoon made the salt manufacture difficult and the Congress switched to other forms of mass struggle, all characterised by a similar pattern of careful choice of social issues, followed by their broadening and radicalisation through a variety of populist initiatives, such as: 
• non-payment of revenue in ryotwari areas; 
• no-chowkidara-tax campaign in zamindari areas; and 
• violation of forest laws in the Central Provinces. 
• Social boycott of Police and lower level administrative officials led to many resignations 

Response at Different Places 

• Tamil Nadu 
• In April 1930, C. Rajagopalachari organised a march from Thiruchirapalli to Vedaranniyam on the Tanjore (or Thanjavur) coast to break the salt law. 
• The event was followed by widespread picketing of foreign cloth shops and anti-liquor campaign 
• Malabar 
• Kelappan, a Nair Congress leader famed for the Vaikom Satyagraha, organised salt marches 
• Andhra Region 
• District salt marches were organise in east and west Godavari, Krishna and Guntur. A number of sibirams (military style camps) were set up to serve as the headquarters of the Salt Satyagraha. 
• Bengal 

• Bengal provided the largest number of arrests as well as the highest amount of violence. 
• Midnapur, Arambagh and several rural pockets witnessed powerful movements developed around salt satyagraha and chaukidari tax. 
• During the same period, Surya Sen’s Chittagong revolt group carried out a raid on two armouries and declared the establishment of a provisional government 
• Bihar 

• Champaran and Saran were the first two districts to start salt satyagraha 
• However, very soon, a very powerful non-chaukidari tax agitation replaced the salt satyagraha (owing to physical constraints in making salt) 
• Peshawar 
• Here, Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan’s educational and social reform work among the Pathans had politicised them. Gaffar Khan, also called Badshah Khan and Frontier Gandhi, had started the first Pushto political monthly Pukhtoon and had organised a volunteer brigade ‘Khudai Khidmatgars’, popularly known as the ‘Red-Shirts’, who were pledged to the freedom struggle and non-violence 
• Dharasana 

• On May 21, 1930, Sarojini Naidu, Imam Sahib and Manilal (Gandhi’s son) took up the unfinished task of leading a raid on the Dharasana Salt Works. 
• The unarmed and peaceful crowd was met with a brutal lathicharge 
• United Provinces 
• A no-revenue campaign was organised; a call was given to zamindars to refuse to pay revenue to the government. Under a no-rent campaign, a call was given to tenants against zamindars 

The impact of the civil disobedience movement reverberated far and wide. It created distrust towards the British government and laid the foundation for the freedom struggle, and popularised the new method of propaganda like the Prabhat, pheris, pamphlets, etc. Following the defiance of forest law in Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Central province and the refusal to pay the rural ‘Chaukidari tax’ in Eastern India, the government ended the oppressive salt tax. 

Q18. Write a short note on Simon commission. 

The Simon Commission was launched in India in 1928 by Sir John Simon. 

Simon Commission: Purpose 

Every move had a purpose. The purpose of the Simon Commission was to check the government administration in India.  

In November 1927, the British government declared the application of the Indian Statutory Commission. The aim of this commission was to examine the Government of India act of 1919. The commission was supposed to investigate the working of the 1919 act and suggested improvements in the system. In 1930, the commission gave in its report. 

Arrival of Simon Commission:  

The arrival of the Simon commission faced many challenges. Simon Commission stated that: 

6. The arrival of the Simon Commission marked the abolishment of the dyarchy.  
7. The Simon Commission extended the timeline of government governing in the provinces. 
8. It suggested the establishment of the federation of British India and the princely states.  
9. The communal electorate continued in the pact of the Simon Commission.  
10. The British government announced the conduction of Three Round Table Conferences to approve the proposals raised in the Simon Commission. Then, the British government published the White Paper on the agreed constitutional reforms.  
11. All these processes helped in laying the foundation for the next Government of India Act in 1935. 

Simon Commission Boycotted by Indians 

The Indians did not swiftly accept the Simon Commission act. The Simon Commission was boycotted furiously.  

The congress session was conducted in Madras in December 1927, under the chair of M. A. Ansari. They completely boycotted the Simon Commission. The Muslim League under Jinnah’s leadership, as well as the Hindu Mahasabha liberals, backed Congress’ decision to boycott the Simon Commission. 

Meanwhile, groups such as the Justice Party in the south and the Punjab Unionists have chosen not to boycott the commission. 

The Simon Commission arrived in Bombay on the 3rd of February 1928. On the same day, the entire country continued to boycott the commission. Massive protests against the Simon Commission were held in a number of locations. The commission was welcomed with a black flag as a sign of protest, and slogans of “Simon, go back” were chanted among protestors.  

Result of the Protest    

The protestors were in full swing to boycott the Simon Commission. However, the police brought protestors and demonstrators down with a lathi charge.  

In Lucknow, leaders like G.B. Pant and Jawaharlal Nehru were beaten up by the authorities in charge. In October 1928, Lala Lajpat Rai became the victim and got severe and fatal hits on the chest. Due to the cruel attacks, on 17th November 1928, Lala Lajpat Rai took his last breath.  

It was just the start for Indians to unite and fight for their rights together. They now showed their dedication and anger towards one bigger goal – complete independence from the British government.  

As a result, the congress session passed a resolution that announced the achievement of complete freedom from the British government. It was held in Madras under the leadership of Dr M.A. Ansari. This idea, then, had the full-fledged support of Jawaharlal Nehru and S.Satyamurthy. They carried the great initiative forward. The Indian Independence League was formed, whose main goal was to attain complete freedom from the British government.   

Conclusion 

Many consider the Simon Commission as a blessing in disguise. This is because before the Simon Commission matter came to light, Congress was agenda-less. India’s opposition to the Simon Commission led Lord Birkenhead to throw an open challenge to the Indian leaders to frame a constitution that would unify the Indian opinion.  

This challenge was accepted and came out in the form of the Nehru Report, and even though it was not accepted by the younger faction, it was India’s first attempt to frame a constitution for its people by its people. The Simon Commission also became the basis of the Government of India Act of 1935. Search