Ancient History Q & A (Semester II)
(Sunga to Gupta)

Content by @Harshit_Sharma

Q. Ashvagosh.  

       Born – 80 AD , Ayodhya 

        Died – 150 AD, Peshawar 

• He was a philosopher and poet who is considered India’s greatest poet before Kalidasa (5^th century) and the father of Sanskrit Drama. 
• he popularized the style of Sanskrit poetry known as kavya. 
• He was born in a brahman family but converted to Buddhism later is his life. 
• He rose to the position of spiritual counsellor in Kanishka’s court at Peshawar. 
• the Buddhacarita (“The Life of Buddha”), in verse  and the  Mahalankara  (“Book of Glory”) are some of his prominent works. 
• In 1^st century AD , 4^th Buddhist council was presided by him and Vasumitra in kundalvan in which Buddhism was divided into two sects Mahayana & Hinayana. 

Q2. Buddhist Sangha and 4^th  Budhhist Council. 

In Buddhism, sangha refers to the monastic community of bhikkhu (monks) and bhikkhuni (nuns).  a community of celibate monks and nuns who follow strict discipline and teach the Dharma to fellow Buddhists. Those who followed the Buddha came to be called the Sangha.  

The Fourth Buddhist Council was held in the 1st century A.D. in Kashmir under the patronage of King Kanishka. According to Chinese traditions, Vasumitra presided over the council. During this council, the Mahayana and the Hinayana sects of Buddhism got separated. 

Q3. Mahabhasya based on Ashtadhyayi by Patanjali. 

Mahabhashya  attributed to Patanjali, is a commentary on selected rules of Sanskrit grammar from Panini’s treatise, the Astadhyayi, as well as Katyayana’s Varttika-sutra, an elaboration of Panini’s grammar. It is dated to the 2nd century BCE. 

Q4. Kanishka’s Rabtak Inscription. 

The Rabatak Inscription is an stone inscribed with text written in the Bactrian language and Greek script, found in 1993 at the site of Rabatak, near Surkh Kotal in Afghanistan. The inscription relates to the rule of the Kushan emperor Kanishka, and gives remarkable clues on the genealogy of the Kushan dynasty. It dates to the 2nd century CE. 

Q5. Samudragupta’s Allahabad Pillar Inscription. 

Samudra Gupta court poet and minister Harisena composed the Allahabad pillar inscription or Prayag Prasasti. The pillar was an Ashokan pillar erected by Ashoka six centuries before him. This inscription is a eulogy of Samudra Gupta and mentions the conquests of Samudra Gupta and the boundaries of the Gupta Empire. As per this inscription, Samudra Gupta defeated 9 kings in the North, 12 in the south. Allahabad inscription composed by Harishena does not bear any date for this reason, historians have presumed that it was composed probably before the Ashwamedha Yajna perfromed by Samudragupta. The Allahabad Prasasti was originally engraved on the Ashokan Pillar in Kaushambi near Allahabad. Later it was removed to Allahabad fort. 

Q6. Discuss the achievements of Pushyamitra Sunga. 

Pushyamitra Shunga (died in 151 BC) was the Brahmin senapati of declining Mauryan Empire under king Brihdratha. He was the founder of shunga dynasty. During a military parade, he killed Brihadratha and established himself on the throne in 185 or 186 BC.  

Initially Pushyamitra Shunga was not a great king. His Kingdom was too small in size. In spite of many weaknesses, Pushyamitra deserves some credit that in an age of decay and dissolution, he could at least keep a larger part of the Gangetic Valley in unity under his rule. In the wider context of historical continuity thus the Shunga rule is noteworthy for maintaining law and order. 

Divyabadana describes him as a king who was hostile towards the religion of Buddha. It is said that he attempted to destroy the famous Buddhist monastery at kukkuatarama built by Emperor Ashoka near the capital Pataliputra, but he failed to do so, because some supernatural forces intervened to protect that sacred place. It is also mentioned that the king wanted to take the life of some Buddhist monks of eastern Punjab, but here too he could not succeed. 

Some historians presume that the Buddhists were perhaps unhappy with Shunga king for his pro-Brahmanic policies and therefore painted him in dark colors. On the other hand evidences are there to show that Pushyamitra showed equal respect to the sentiments of both the religion. For example, it is known from a small inscription found at Ayodhya that the king performed an Ashwamedha yajna in accordance with the ancient monarchial tradition. This would have certainly pleased the Brahmins who saw no such religious rites during Ashoka’s days when the Buddhists opposed the practice of animal sacrifice. 

At the same time, however when that Brahmin king Pushyamitra ruled, the Buddhists could not construct huge Buddhists Stupas like Sanchi and Barhut. It can be said that though the Shungas ruled their kingdom as Brahmins, they allowed the Buddhists to freely carry on their religious activities in the country. 

Political Achievements of Pushyamitra Shunga: – 

• The former glory of Magadha was no longer there when Pushyamitra shunga occupied the throne of Pataliputra. The size of the kingdom stood much reduced. At the time when Pushyamitra killed the last Maurya emperor , the territory of Vidarbha proclaimed independence and separated itself from the Magadha territory. The new king declared war against Vidarbha and conquered it.  
• There was a historical controversy over an important issue in connection with the rule of Pushyamitra Shunga. In the famous Hatigumpha inscription of emperor Kharvela of Kalinga, it is mentioned that kharvela invaded pataliputra and defeated the ruling king of Mgadha named Brihaspati Mitra. At first some historians identified this Brihaspati with Pushyamitra Shunga. But further researches led to the conclusion that the identification was not correct. It was  establlished that emperor Kharvela belonged to the first century BC and was not a contemporary of Pushyamitra.  

 In brief, Pushyamitra Shunga maintained his authority over the territory which he inherited from the last.  Mauryan monarch. Even though he was not an aggressive king to expand his kingdom, yet he ruled over a large portion of the gangetic valley and Northern India. 

Foreign Invasion: –  

The time of Pushyamitra saw some foreign invasions which endangered northern India. These invaders were usually termed in Indian literature as the Yavanas. But it is ascertained from historical evidences that they were in fact the Bactrian Greeks. From Patanjali’s writings it is understood that these foreigners from North-west penetrated into the Gangetic valley and advanced as for as Ayodhya. In the writings of Kalidasa also are seen references to battle between the invading Yavanas and the Shunga armies. 

It is not clear that who was the leader or king of the foreign invaders during the shunga period. While some historians tried to identify that invader as king Demetrius , some others think of him as Menander. Whosoever might have been king of the invading forces, he was not able to conquer the shunga territory. 

Evidences suggest that a grandson of king Pushyamitra led the royal army against the enemies, defeated the Indo-Greeks forces and drove them out from the Shunga kingdom. 

In a Nutshell, Pushyamitra Shunga ruled for 36 years. His reign was marked by war-fare, wherein he and his successors fought the Indo-Greeks. He founded a dynasty based on Brahmanical order besides he also renovated Sanchi stupa which was exclusively Buddhists. He also patronized the Sanskrit grammarian, Patanjali. 

Pushyamitra Shunga’s is recorded in the Harshcharita authored by Banabhatta. 

Q7. Discuss the contributions of Indo-Greeks. 

The history of the Indo-Greeks (180 BC – 1^st AD) is mainly gathered from their coins. This evidence is very often confusion because many kings had identical names. 

The son of Euthydemos, Demetrius I, Conquered modern southern Afghanistan and the Makran area he also occupied some parts of Punjab. Then around 175 B.C. the homeland of Bactrians came to be ruled by Eukratides, another branch of the Bactrians. His son Demetrius-II penetrated deep into the Punjab proceeding along the Indus, he penetrated till Kutch. 

The most known Indo-Greek was Menander, whose claim rests on the Buddhist treatise the Questions of king Milinda-discussion between menander and the Buddhist philosopher, Nagasena and he ruled the Punjab from C.160 to 140 B.C. 

Menander not only stabilized his power but extended his frontiers. His coins are to be found in the region extending from Kabul to Mathura near Delhi. He attempted to conquer the Ganges valley but in vain. Probably he was defeated by the Shungas. 

The penetration of Indo-Greeks, as well as of sakas pahlavas and Kushana influenced the government, society, religion literature and art of ancient India. 

To speak point wise, the first influence of the Greeks was on the divine right theory of kingship. The Indo-Greeks took high sounding title like divine kings, sons of gods, etc. and maintained the myth of Empire. Even before Indo-Greek rulers established themselves in India the services of the Greeks were utilized. Ashoka appointed a Greek as very viceroy of his province. And after the Indo-Greek period, a Greek, during the period of Kushans, was entrusted with engineering work. 

Talking of social life, a number of Greeks figure as donors in the inscription of the Karle caves (Maharashtra). The Greek mode of wearing hair and the habit of eating in a lying posture came into vogue. Also when some of the Indo-Greeks settled in India, they took to trade and they became affluent merchants. Even Tamil literature refers to Greek ships bringing cargoes, and the Greek section of Kaveripatnam was very prosperous. And some of the Tamil kings kept Greek body-guards. 

Regarding science, contemporary writers admit the greatness of the Greek scientists. The Gargi Samhita admits that the Greeks were like gods in science and they penetrated into India as far as Pataliputra. Varahmihira, during the Gupta age was in the know of Greek science and used a number of Greek technical terms in his works, It is also argued that Charaka was influenced by the works of Hippocrates, the father of Medicine, but there is not evidence to confirm this view. Thus it is difficult to conjecture the extent to which ancient scientists of India were influenced by the scientific knowledge of Greeks. 

In the field of art, first the Indo-Greeks did contribute to die cutters’ art. They showed a remarkable skill in making the portraits of rulers. Also the Greek kings adopt some of the indigenous methods of minting the coins. Although Indians did not fully learn the fine art of die-cutting, the coins of Indian rulers were influenced by the Greeks. Indian adopted the art of striking coins with two dies, the obverse and the reverse. Secondly, the curious open-air theatre that came into being in this period was directly a Greek legacy. The term Yavanika for curtain shows that Indian drama, at least on one point, was influenced by the Greek model, Thirdly, the Greek form of sculpture influenced the Gandhara art of the Kushan period. The school began in the Kabul valley where the Greek influence was the maximum. Accordingly, tone author, the terracotta of toys and plaques were all influenced by the Greeks. 

In the religious field too, the Greek influence was felt, as borne out by Millinda-Panho and the Besnagar inscription. Legions of Greeks were converted into Indian religions of the day. One Greek officer, Theodorus, got the relics of the Buddha enshrined in the Swat valley. Besides, Hindu iconography was greatly changed because of the Indo-Greek influences. It is difficult to say how many Babylonian and Iranian Gods were incorporated in Hindu religions. A few deities were taken over by the Parthians and they were adopted by the Kushans. But it is doubtful to say as to which of the Greek deities were incorporated in the Pantheon of Indian gods. 

All told, the Greek influence was mostly felt in art (the Gandhara sculptures, which probably influenced the later day Mathura sculptures) and in religion (gave a fillip to Mahayana Buddhism and popularized the Bhakti aspect of religion as pioneered by the Vasudeva cult). 

Q8. Discuss the contributions of the Satavahanas to art and literature. 

Satavahana dynasty, was an Indian family that, according to some interpretations based on the Puranas, belonged to the Andhra jati (a tribe) and was the first Deccanese dynasty to build an empire in Daksinapatha—i.e., the southern region. 

At the height of their power, the Satavahanas held distant areas of western and central India. 

On the strength of Puranic evidence, the beginnings of Satavahana ascendancy can be dated to late in the 1st century BCE, although some authorities trace the family to the 3rd century BCE. 

The Satavahanas emerged as a critical dynasty in the post-Mauryan age; and most of our knowledge about the Satavahanas comes from inscriptional and numismatic evidence found in regions like Nasik and Nanaghat. 

The contribution of the Satavahana period in the field of art is also great and mentionable. The remains of the stupas and sculptures of this period have been found in sites in Andhra at Goli, Jaggayapata, Bhattiprabe, Ghantasala, Amaravati and Nagarjuna Konda. The stupas of Amaravati are the largest and finest in quality. In the opinion of sir John Marshall “There is greater originality, freedom of treatment, spontaneous exuberance in the art of amaravati. The relief of Amaravati indeed appear to be as truly Indian in style as those of Bharhut and Ellora. They followed as a natural sequence on the Mauryan art, when that art was finding expression in more conventionalized forms. They have inherited certain motive and types which filtered from the north-west but these elements have been completely absorbed and assimilated without materially influencing the indigenous character of the sculptures.” 

From literary point of view this was the period of the rise of the Prakrit language. All the inscriptions of the Satavahana king are in Prakrit language. Halla was the greatest poet of this period. He composed ‘Saptshati’ in Prakrit language. ‘Brihatkatha’ of Gunagya was also the composition of this period. According to Allen a scholar named Sarvavarman wrote ‘Katantra’. This was a book on grammar during this period. 

Q9. Discuss the Rule of The Pahalavas King Gondopharnes. 

In the mid 1st century CE, the Shakas’ domination in northwest India was followed by that of the Parthians. 

• In many ancient Sanskrit texts, they are mentioned together as the Shaka-Pahlava.  
• In fact, they ruled on parallel lines for some time. 
• Originally the Parthians lived in Iran, from where they moved to India and in comparison, with the Greeks and the Shakas they occupied a small portion of north-western India in the 1st century. 

• The most famous Parthian king was Gondophernes (mentioned in an inscription dated 45 CE found at Takht-i-Bahi, recovered from Mardan near Peshawar) in whose reign Saint Thomas came to India to propagate Christianity.  
• Gondophernes, also spelled Gondophares, (flourished 1st century CE), an Indo-Parthian king in the areas of Arachosia, Kabul, and Gandhara (present Afghanistan and Pakistan). Some scholars recognize the name of Gondophernes through its Armenian form, Gastaphar, in Gaspar, the traditional name of one of the Magi (Wise Men) who came from the East to worship Jesus Christ at his nativity. 
• Gondophernes was first known from the apocryphal Acts of Judas Thomas the Apostle, which told that St. Thomas visited the court of Gondophernes, where he was put in charge of building a royal palace but was imprisoned for spending the construction money on charitable purposes. Meanwhile, according to the story, Gad, the king’s brother, died, and the angels took him to heaven and showed him the palace that St. Thomas had built there by his good deeds. Gad was restored to life, and both he and Gondophernes were converted to Christianity. 
• Coins of Gondophernes, some bearing his Indian name Guduphara, indicate that he may have reigned supreme over both eastern Iran and northwestern India. According to an inscription at Takht-i-Bhai (near Peshawar), Gondophernes ruled for at least 26 years, probably from about 19 to 45 CE. 

Q10. Discuss the cultural achievements of the Sangam age. 

Introduction 

• The period roughly between the 3^rd century B.C. and 3^rd century A.D. in South India (the area lying to the south of river Krishna and Tungabhadra) is known as Sangam Period. 
• It has been named after the Sangam academies held during that period that flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings of Madurai. 
• At the sangams eminent scholars assembled and functioned as the board of censors and the choicest literature was rendered in the nature of anthologies. 

• These literary works were the earliest specimens of Dravidian literature. 
• According to the Tamil legends, there were three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) held in the ancient South India popularly called Muchchangam. 
   
• The First Sangam, is believed to be held at Madurai, attended by gods and legendary sages. No literary work of this Sangam is available. 
• The Second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram, only Tolkappiyam survives from this. 
• The Third Sangam was also held at Madurai. A few of these Tamil literary works have survived and are a useful sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam period. 

Social Divisions  

The Tamil society during the Sangam period was broadly divided into several groups. In the beginning of the Sangam Age, the Tamil society was not organized on the basis of the Vedic caste system, namely Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Sudras. However, the earliest of the Sangam literature, Tolkappiyam refers to the four divisions prevalent in the Sangam society namely, Anthanar, Arasar, Vaislyar and Vellalar, it may be said that this classification roughly corresponds to the Vedic Social division. 

Another Sangam work, Purananuru mentions the names of ancient Tamil tribes such as Thudiyan, Pannan, and Kadamban. These divisions indicate the complex social structure prevalent in the Sangam Age. 

Food and Hospitality 

Rice was the staple food during the Sangam period. The food-habits varied among the people according to their economic status. 
The rich had their feasts every day, while the poor took simple food. Chewing betel leaves was most common among the people. Offering betel leaves to guests had become a social formality. Hospitality was a special virtue of the Sangam Tamils. The Sangam literature describes how hosts had always been waiting to welcome guests. 

Dress and Ornaments 

The Sangam Tamils paid more attention to their dress. It varied according to their status. The rich wore silk and fine cotton garments. The middle class people generally wore two pieces of clothes made of Cotton. Women paid much attention to their hairstyle. They used flowers like Jasmine to decorate their plaits and tufts. Both men and women used perfumes made of sandal and flowers. 

The Sangam literature refers to a variety of ornaments worn by both men and women. They were made of gold, silver, pearls and precious stones. Poor people used ornaments made of shells and beads. 

Economic Life 

Generally, the Tamil society had enjoyed an affluent economy during the Sangam Age. Agriculture, industry, trade and commerce made the Sangam Tamils almost self-sufficient. Exports were also made to the other parts of the world. 

Agriculture 

The chief occupation of the people was agriculture. Paddy was the main crop. Millet, grams and sugarcane were also cultivated. Irrigation through rivers, tanks and wells was used for cultivation. 

Occupation 

Weaving and spinning were the most important crafts of the Sangam period. Uraiyur and Madurai were the main centers for the manufacture of cotton fabrics. The weavers produced and exported fine cotton clothes. The word Kalingam refers to very nice garments. The Sangam literature refers to clothes, which were thinner than steam. Silk clothes were also produced in the Tamil country. Other craftsmen like the carpenter, blacksmith, goldsmith and potter had practiced their respective occupations. Fishing and hunting had also remained as important occupation during this period. 

Trade and Commerce 

In the beginning of the Sangam Age, the barter system of trade was followed. Generally, the people exchanged their commodities with their neighbors. For example, the people of Kurinji region exchanged honey with the people of Neydal region for getting fish and salt. Likewise, the Mullai people gave their milk products to Marudham people to get rice from them. 

Later, when they began to use coins, trade picked up rapidly. Local markets came up and they were known as Angadis. Both Day Market (Nalangadi) and Evening Bazaar (Allangadi) existed in port towns. The Pattinappalai refers to their existence at Puhar. Goods from distant places were brought to these markets. The expansion of trade led to the growth of towns. Moreover, export of goods to other countries had increased. (It will be described in the next chapter). 

Religion 

We have already referred to the five Gods worshipped in the five different regions. In addition to these Gods, the Sangam Tamils worshipped their ancestors. They erected memorial stones called as Nadukal, They were also known as Hero Stones or Veerakkal. Such stones were erected in memory of those who died in battles. 
The Sangam people had also worshipped the natural objects. For example, the Sun. Moon.. Earth, rivers and mountains became their objects of worship. Neem tree was considered sacred. 

Cultural Life 

The Sangam Tamils enjoyed a high degree of cultural life. Their interests in education, literature, music, dance, drama and festivals have been described in the Sangam literature. 

Education and Literature 

Education was common for all, men and women, rich and poor and for different communities. Parents attached importance to the education of their children. The Purananooru describes that it is the duty of the father to make his children learned. 
The bulk of the Sangamn literature written by about 500 poets indicates the importance given to education. The poets of the Sangam period played vital role in the social and culture life of the people. 

Fine Arts 

The Sangam Tamils had also established their greatness in fine arts. They developed the concept of Muthamizh iyal, Isai and Naatakam. The Paanars or bards were experts in music. They moved from place to place, singing bards in praise of kings and local chieftains. Later, the Tamils developed musical notes or swarams. The musical tune was known as Pann. Several musical instruments were also used. Shells, drums, flute and lutes were famous instruments. Karikalan had been hailed as Ezhisai Vallavan. The art of dancing was encouraged during the Sangam period. Attam and Koothu were performed during festivals. Tholkaappiyam refers to Naatakam or Drama. The art of painting was also known to the Sangam Tamils. They celebrated several festivals. Kaarthigai, Onam and Indra festival were some of them. The indra festival had been celebrated annually at Puhar. The dance and music had its religious connotation from the earliest times. 

Q11. Discuss the political alliance between the Guptas and Vakatakas. 

•  According to some legends, Samudragupta was succeeded by his elder son Ramagupta, but Chandragupta II killed him.  
• It is said that Chandragupta II had to kill his brother and marry his wife, Dhruvadevi, to safeguard the honour of the Gupta dynasty. 
•  The peak of the territorial expansion of the Gupta empire was reached during Chandragupta II’s reign (also known as Chandragupta Vikramaditya), who extended the limits of his empire by conquests and marital alliances with other royal dynasties of the period.  

•  He married Kuberanaga, the Naga princess, and had a daughter, Prabhavati, with her. Prabhavati was married to Rudrasena II of the ruling Vakataka dynasty in Deccan. 
• After the death of her husband, Prabhavati ruled the territory as regent to her minor sons with the help of her father. 
•  During this twenty-year period, the Vakataka realm was practically a part of the Gupta Empire.  
•  Chandragupta thus exercised indirect control over the Vakataka kingdom, which proved very beneficial to him.  
• With his great influence in this central Indian region, he was able to target his other enemies better. 

• Thus, he conquered western Malwa and Gujarat from the Shaka satraps (one of them was Rudrasimha III) who had been in command in western India for about the past four centuries. 
• This conquest took the expanse of the Gupta empire to the western sea coast, which was an important region for trade and commerce.  
• This contributed to the prosperity of Malwa and its chief city Ujjain, which was also Chandragupta II’s second capital. 

Q12. Discuss Socio-Economic specialties of the period between C.200 BCE to C. 300 BCE.

Crafts and Craftsmen 

• The Digha Nikaya, which relates to pre- Maurya times, mentions nearly two dozen occupations, but the Mahavastu, which relates to this period, catalogues thirty-six kinds of workers living in the town of Rajgir, and the list is not exhaustive. 
• The Milinda Panho or the Questions of Milinda enumerates as many as seventy-five occupations, sixty of which are connected with various crafts. A Tamil text known in English as The Garland of Madurai supplements the information supplied by the two Buddhist texts on crafts and craftsmen. 
• The Telangana region of Andhra seems to have been the richest in this respect, and in addition to weapons, balance rods, socketed axes and hoes, sickles, ploughshares, razors, and ladles have been discovered in the Karimnagar and Nalgonda districts of this region. 
• Indian iron and steel, including cutlery, were exported to the Abyssinian ports, and they enjoyed great prestige in western Asia. 

• Mathura was a great centre for the manufacture of a special type of cloth which was called shataka. Dyeing was a thriving craft in some south Indian towns. 
• A brick-built dyeing vat has been unearthed at Uraiyur, a suburb of Tiruchirapalli town in Tamil Nadu, and similar dyeing vats were excavated at Arikamedu. These structures relate to the first– third centuries when the handloom textile industry in these towns flourished. 
• Many products of crafts have been found as a result of digging in the Kushan complexes. Indian ivories have been found in Afghanistan and Rome. They are likened to ivory objects found in excavations at Satavahana sites in the Deccan. 
• Roman glass objects are found in Taxila and in Afghanistan, but it was around the beginning of the Christian era that the knowledge of glass-blowing reached India and attained its peak. 

Types of Merchants 

• The Garland of Madurai calls the streets broad rivers of people who buy and sell in the market place. The importance of shopkeepers is indicated by the repetition of the term apana in the description of the city of Sakala. 
• Its shops appear as filled with various types of cloth made in Kashi, Kotumbara, and elsewhere. Many artisans and merchants were organized into guilds called sreni and ayatana, but how these organizations functioned is indicated neither in the Mahavastu nor in the Milinda-Panho. 
• The Buddhist texts mention the sresthi, who was the chief merchant of the nigama, and the sarthavaha, the caravan leader who was the head of the corporation of merchants (vanijgramo). It also speaks of nearly half a dozen petty merchants called vanija. 
• The term agrivanija seems to be obscure, but these merchants may have been the predecessors of the agrawala 

Trade Routes and Centres 

• Although the Parthians of Iran imported iron and steel from India, they presented great obstacles to India’s trade with the lands further west of Iran. It seems that around the beginning of the Christian era, the monsoon was understood, and this enabled sailors to sail in much less time directly from the eastern coast of the Arabian Sea to the western coast, and easily call at the various ports along the route such as Broach and Sopara situated on the western coast of India, and Arikamedu and Tamralipti situated on the eastern coast. 
• The Shakas and the Kushans used two routes from the north-western frontier to the western sea coast. Both these routes converged at Taxila, and were connected with the Silk Route passing through Central Asia. 
• The first route directly ran from the north to the south, linking Taxila with the lower Indus basin from where it passed on to Broach. The second route, called the uttarapatha, was in more frequent use. 
• From Taxila it passed through modern Punjab up to the eastern bank of the Yamuna. Following the course of the Yamuna, it went southward to Mathura, from Mathura passing on to Ujjain in Malwa, and again from Ujjain to Broach on the western coast. Ujjain was the meeting point of another route which started from Kaushambi near Allahabad. 

Goods in Foreign Trade 

• The Romans mainly imported spices for which south India was famous, and also muslin, pearls, jewels, and precious stones from central and south India. Iron goods, especially cutlery, formed an important item of export to the Roman empire. 
• Pearls, ivory, precious stones, and animals were considered luxuries, but plants and plant products served the basic religious, funerary, culinary, and medicinal needs of the people. Kitchenware may have been included in the items of import, and cutlery may have been important for the higher class of people. 
• In addition to the goods directly supplied by India, certain articles were brought to India from China and Central Asia and then passed on to the eastern part of the Roman empire. 
• Silk was directly sent from China to the Roman empire via the Silk Route passing through north Afghanistan and Iran. In return for the articles exported by India to the Roman empire, the Romans exported to India wine, wine-amphorae, and various other types of pottery which were discovered in excavations at Tamluk in West Bengal, Arikamedu near Pondicherry, and at several other sites in south India. 
• Sometimes Roman goods travelled as far as Guwahati. Lead, which was used for making coins by the Satavahanas, seems to have been imported from Rome in the form of coiled strips. 

• At Begram, 72 km north of Kabul, large glass jars made in Italy, Egypt, and Syria have been found. Also found there were bowls, bronze stands, steel yards, and weights of Western origin, small Graeco-Roman bronze statues, jugs, and other vessels made of alabaster. 
• Taxila, which is coterminous with the modern Sirkap in the North- West Frontier Province of Pakistan, has yielded fine examples of the Graeco- Roman sculpture in bronze. Silver ornaments, some bronze pots, one jar, and coins of the Roman emperor Tiberius were also found. However, Arretine pottery, which is regularly found in south India, appears neither in central or western India nor in Afghanistan. 
• The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang carried back with him statues of the Buddha made of gold, silver and sandalwood, and over 600 manuscripts loaded on the backs of 20 horses. Over 50 manuscripts were lost when the boat on which he was crossing the Indus capsised.  

Money Economy 

• As early as the fifth century BC, India had paid a tribute of 320 talents of gold to the Iranian empire. This gold may have been extracted from the gold mines in Sindh. 

• The Kushans probably obtained gold from Central Asia, and may also have procured it either from Karnataka or from the gold mines of Dhalbhum in Jharkhand which later came under their sway. On account of the contact with Rome, the Kushans issued the dinar type of gold coins which became abundant under the Gupta rule. 
• The Kushans issued the largest number of copper coins in northern and north-western India. The Indo-Sassanians, the successors of the Kushans in lower Sindh, also issued many coins. 
• Copper and bronze coins were used in large quantities by the rulers of some indigenous dynasties such as the Nagas who ruled in central India, the Yaudheyas who ruled in eastern Rajasthan together with the adjacent areas of Haryana, Punjab, and UP, and by the Mitras who ruled in Kaushambi, Mathura, Avanti, and Ahichchhatra (Bareilly district in UP). 
• The period roughly between 200 BC and AD 300 evidences the largest number of coins, and these were issued not only by Indian and Central Asian rulers and but also by many cities and tribes. 

Urban Growth 

• Important towns in north India, such as Vaishali, Pataliputra, Varanasi, Kaushambi, Shravasti, Hastinapur, Mathura, and Indraprastha (Purana Qila in New Delhi), are all mentioned in literary texts, and some of them are also described by the Chinese pilgrims. 
• Most of them flourished during the Kushan period in the first and second centuries. Excavations have revealed superior constructions of the Kushan age. Several sites in Bihar such as Chirand, Panr, Sonpur, and Buxar, and others in eastern UP such as Khairadih and Mason saw prosperous Kushan phases. 
• Similarly, in UP, towns such as Sohgaura, Bhita, Kaushambi, Shringaverapur, and Atranjikhera were prosperous. Rangmahal in Rajasthan, and many other sites in the western areas throve in Kushan times. 
• The excavations at Sonkh in Mathura reveal as many as seven levels of the Kushan phase, and only one of the Gupta phase. Current excavation shows Sachnan Kot, 50 km from Lucknow, to be the largest Kushan town in Northern India. It covers 9 sq. km and contains many brick houses and copper coins. 
• Again, sites in Jalandhar, Ludhiana, and Ropar, all located in Punjab, and several Haryana sites reveal the quality of Kushan constructions. In many instances, the Gupta period structures were poorly built and made of used Kushan bricks. 

• The most important town was Ujjain as the nodal point of two routes, one from Kaushambi and the other from Mathura. It was however also important because of its export of agate and carnelian stones. Excavations show that agate, jasper, and carnelian were worked on a large scale for the manufacture of beads after 200 BC. 
• Towns throve in the Satavahana kingdom during the same period as they did under the Shakas and Kushans. Tagar (Ter), Paithan, Dhanyakataka, Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, Broach, Sopara, Arikamedu, and Kaveripattanam were prosperous towns in western and south India, during the Satavahana period. 
• Towns in Punjab and western UP throve because the centre of Kushan power lay in north-western India. Most Kushan towns in India lay exactly on the northwestern or uttarapatha route passing from Mathura to Taxila. 

Q13. Discuss the contribution of Kushana Period in Indian Society.

Introduction: 

Indian society is living proof of the doctrine that culture is the attribute of a land and its people. Assimilation and synthesis have been the process of Indian civilization. Relations between India and Central Asia are ancient and civilisational. India has been connected closely with Central Asia through the Silk Route from circa 3rd century BC till 15th century AD when the sea route from Europe to India was discovered. This made the land journey unviable because it was more risky, longer in duration, more expensive and volumes of cargo that could be carried by sea-faring vessels were much larger than by caravans over the land route. 

Impact on Economy 

Agriculture and Trade 

• The coming of the Central Asian people established intimate contacts between Central Asia and India. India received a great fund of gold from the Altai mountains in Central Asia. 

• Gold may also have been received by it through trade with the Roman empire. 
• The Kushans controlled the Silk Route, which started from China and passed through their empire in Central Asia and Afghanistan to Iran, and western Asia which formed part of the Roman empire in the eastern Mediterranean zone. 
• This route was a source of substantial income for the Kushans, and they built a large prosperous empire on the strength of the tolls levied from traders. 
• It is significant that the Kushans were the first rulers in India to issue gold coins on a wide scale. The Kushans also promoted agriculture. 
• The earliest archaeological traces of large-scale irrigation in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and western Central Asia date to the Kushan period. 

Impact on Polity 

• The Shakas and the Kushanas propagated the idea of the divine origin of kingship. The Kushan kings were called sons of god. 
• The Kushans introduced the satrap system of government in India. 
• The whole empire was divided into several satrapies and each satrapy was governed by a satrap. 
• The hereditary dual rule which includes two kings ruling in the same empire at the same time was introduced. 

• The practice of military governorship was also introduced by the Greeks. 
• The governors appointed by the Greeks were called Strategos. These were important to maintain the newly conquered areas. 

Better Cavalry: 

• The Shakas and Kushans added new ingredients to Indian culture and enriched it immensely. 
• They settled in India for good and completely identified themselves with its culture. 

• As they did not have their own script, written language, or any organized religion, they adopted these components of culture from India and became an integral part of Indian society to which they contributed considerably. 
• They introduced better cavalry and the use of the riding horse on a large scale. 
• They popularized the use of reins and saddles, which appear in the Buddhist sculpture of the second and third centuries AD. 
• The Shakas and the Kushans were excellent horsemen. 
• Their passion for horsemanship is shown by numerous equestrian terracotta figures of Kushan times discovered from Begram in Afghanistan. 

• Some of these foreign horsemen were heavily armoured and fought with spears and lances. 
• Presumably they also used some form of toe stirrup made of rope which facilitated their movements. 
• The Shakas and Kushans introduced the turban, tunic, trousers, and heavy long coat. 

Impact on Socio-Cultural life: 

The Origin of Mahayana Buddhism: 

• Indian religions underwent changes in post-Maurya times partly due to a great leap in trade and artisanal activity and partly due to the large influx of people from Central Asia. 
• Buddhism was especially affected. 
• The monks and nuns could not afford to lose the cash donations from the growing body of traders and artisans concentrated in towns. 
• Large numbers of coins are found in the monastic areas of Nagarjunakonda in AP. Also, the Buddhists welcomed foreigners who were non-vegetarians. 
• This new form of Buddhism came to be called Mahayana or the Great Vehicle. 

• In the old puritan Buddhism, certain things associated with the Buddha were worshipped as his symbols. 
• These were replaced with his images at the time when the Christian era began. 

Religious Developments: 

• Some rulers and others from Central Asia adopted Vaishnavism, which means the worship of Vishnu, the god of protection and preservation. 
• The Greek ambassador called Heliodorus set up a pillar in honour of Vasudeva at Besnagar near Vidisa (headquarters of Vidisa district) in MP around the middle of the second century BC. 

• A few other rulers adopted Buddhism. 
• The famous Greek ruler Menander became a Buddhist. The questions and the answers that he exchanged with the Buddhist teacher Nagasena, also called Nagarjuna, is a good source for the intellectual history of the post-Maurya period. 
• The Kushan rulers worshipped both Shiva and the Buddha, and the images of these two gods appeared on the Kushan coins. 

Structures and Pottery: 

• The Shaka-Kushan phase saw a distinct advance in building activities. Excavations have revealed several layers of construction, sometimes over half a dozen, at various sites in north India. 

• In them we find the use of burnt bricks for flooring and tiles for both flooring and roofing. 
• However, the use of tiles may not have been adopted from outside. The period also saw the construction of brick-walls. 
• The characteristic pottery is red ware, both plain and polished, with medium to fine fabric. The distinctive pots are sprinklers and spouted channels. 
• They remind us of red pottery with thin fabric found in the same period in Kushan layers in Central Asia. 
• Red pottery techniques were widely known in Central Asia and are to be found even in regions such as Farghana which lay on the peripheries of the Kushan cultural zone. 

Gandhara and Mathura Schools of Art: 

• The foreign princes became enthusiastic patrons of Indian art and literature, and displayed the zeal characteristic of new converts. 
• The Kushan empire brought together masons and other artisans trained in different schools and countries. 
• This gave rise to several schools of art: Central Asian, Gandhara, and Mathura. Pieces of sculpture from Central Asia show a synthesis of both local and Indian elements influenced by Buddhism. 
• Indian craftsmen came into contact with the Central Asians, Greeks, and Romans, especially in the north-western frontier of India in Gandhara. 

• This gave rise to a new form of art in which images of the Buddha were made in the Graeco-Roman style, and his hair fashioned in the Graeco- Roman style. 
• The influence of Gandhara art also spread to Mathura, which was primarily a centre of indigenous art. 
• Mathura produced beautiful images of the Buddha, but it is also famous for the headless erect statue of Kanishka whose name is inscribed at its lower end. It also produced several stone images of Vardhamana Mahavira. 
• During the same period, beautiful works of art were created at several places south of the Vindhyas. 
• Wonderful Buddhist caves were constructed out of rock in Maharashtra. In AP, Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati became great centres of Buddhist art, and stories associated with the Buddha were portrayed on numerous panels. 

Literature 

• The Sanskrit literature was patronized by foreign princes. 
• The great writers such as Ashvaghosha were patronized by Kushans. Ashvaghosha was the author of Buddha charita and Saundarananda. 
• The Indian theatre was also enriched with Greek influence since the use of curtains was introduced by the Greeks. 

Conclusion: 

Thus, the invasion and contact of central Asian princes impacted India in several spheres such as pottery, cavalry, literature, science and technology, religion and polity. 

Q14. Discuss the importance of Gupta Period in Indian History.

The peace and prosperity created under the leadership of the Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors. This period became known as the Golden Age of India because it was marked by extensive inventions and discoveries in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture. 

Science, Literature and Art 
Although Chandragupta I (320-340 AD) and Samudragupta (340-380 AD) were prominent rulers, the reign of Chandragupta II promoted science, art, philosophy, and religion in his government. Chandragupta’s court was even more influential because it contained the Navartna or the Nine Jewels, a group of nine scholars who produced advancements in many academic fields. 
Scholars of this period include Varahamihira and Aryabhata; Aryabhata is believed to be the first to come up with the concept of zero and who postulated the theory that the Earth moves round the Sun. Aryabhata proposed that the earth is not flat, but is instead round and rotates about its own axis. He also may have discovered that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight. Other scholars helped create the first Indian numeral systems with base 10 originated during the Golden Age. The famous Sushruta Samhita, which is a Sanskrit redaction text on all of the major concepts of ayurvedic medicine with innovative chapters on surgery, dates to the Gupta period. The game of chess probably originated from this period, where its early form was called chaturanga and contained game pieces for infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariots, which would each evolve into the modern pawn, knight, rook, and bishop, respectively. 
Krishna and Radha playing chaturanga (an early version of chess) Scholars during the reign of Chandragupta II (380-413 AD) contributed to many scientific advancements, including in astronomy, mathematics, and medicine.Kalidasa, who was a great playwright, wrote plays such as Shakuntala, which is said to have inspired German writer and stateman, Johann von Goethe centuries later, and marked the highest point of Sanskrit literature, which is also said to have belonged to this period. He also became renowned for his study of the shringara (romantic) element. The Indian scholar Vatsyayana also wrote the ancient Sanskrit text the Kama Sutra, as a standard work on human sexual behaviour. The cultural creativity of the Golden Age of India produced magnificent architecture, sculptures, and paintings. Palaces and temples constructed during the Golden Age contained the highest quality sculptures and paintings. The walls of Buddhist shrines and monasteries were decorated with colorful frescoes, or wall paintings. These paintings showed scenes from the life of the Buddha. Some shrines were cut out of the cliffs and although dark, they were also decorated with sculptures and paintings. The Dashavatara Temple or Vishnu Temple The Golden Age of India produced many temples with many sculptures and pantings. Influence on East and Southeast Asia. 
The Gupta dynasty promoted Hinduism, but supported Buddhist and Jain cultures as well. Gupta Buddhist art influenced East and Southeast Asia as trade between regions increased. The Gupta Empire became an important cultural center and influenced nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia. Classical forms of Indian music and dance, created under the Guptas, are practiced all over the India today. 
Fa Xian was one of the first Chinese travelers who visited India during the reign of Gupta emperor Chandragupta II. He started his journey from China in 399 CE and reached India in 405 CE, and he recorded all of his observations in a journal that was eventually published. During his stay in India up to 411 CE, he went on a pilgrimage to Mathura, Kanauj, Kapilavastu, Kushinagar, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Kashi, and Rajgriha. Fa Xian was pleased with the mildness of administration and, according to his accounts, the Gupta Empire was a prosperous period until trade collapsed as its trade partners disintegrated. 

Q15. Discuss the importance of Indian foreign trade from Sunga to Gupta Period.

Although the volume of trade between India and Rome seems to have been large, it was not conducted in articles of daily use for the common people. There was a brisk commerce in luxury goods, which are sometimes called articles of aristocratic necessities. The Romans first started trade with the southernmost part of India, as their earliest coins are found in the Tamil kingdoms which lay outside the Satavahana dominions. The Romans mainly imported spices for which south India was famous, and also muslin, pearls, jewels, and precious stones from central and south India. Iron goods, especially cutlery, formed an important item of export to the Roman empire. Pearls, ivory, precious stones, and animals were considered luxuries, but plants and plants products served the basic religious, funerary, culinary, and medicinal need of people. Kitchenware may have been included in the items of import, and cutlery may have been important for the higher class of people. 

In addition to the goods directly supplied by India, certain articles were brought from China and Central Asia to India and then passed on to the eastern part of Roman Empire via the silk route passing through north Afghanistan and Iran. However, the establishment of the Parthian rule in Iran and the neigbhouring areas created difficulties. Therefore, silk have to be diverted to the western Indian ports through the north western part of subcontinent. Sometimes it also found its way from China to the east coast of India, and from there went to the west. Thus there was considerable transit trade between India and Roman Empire. 

In return to the articles exported by India to the Roman empire, the Romans exported to India wine, wine-amphorae, and various other types of pottery which were discovered in excavations at Tamluk in West Bengal, Arikamedu near Pondicherry, and at several other sites in south India. Sometimes Roman goods travelled as far as Guwahati. Lead, which was used for making coins by the Satavahanas, seems to have been imported from Rome in the form of strips. The Roman goods do not appear in any substantial quantities in north India, but there is no doubt that under the kushans, the north-western part of the second century traded with the eastern part of Roman Empire. At Begram, 72 km north of kabul, large glass jars made in Italy, Egypt, and Syria have been found. Arretine pottery, which is regularly found in South India, appears neither in central or western India nor in Afghanistan. The kingdom of both Satavahanas and Kushans profited from the trade with Roman empire, although the largest profit seems to have accrued to the Satavahanas. 

The most significant Roman export to India was the large number of coins, invariably made of gold and silver, though some Roman copper coins are also found. The total number of Roman gold and silver coins that have been found in India does not exceed 6000, but it is difficult to say that only this number of coins came from Rome. Roman writer Pliny, who wrote his account called ‘Natural History’ in Latin in AD 77. He believed that Rome was being drained of gold on account of its trade with India. As early as 22 AD we hear of complaints against excessive expenditure on the purchase of pepper from the east. As westerners were very fond of Indian pepper, it is called Yavanapriya in Sanskrit. There was also a strong reaction against the use of Indian made steel cutlery for which the Roman nobles paid very high prices. The concept of the balance of trade may not have been known at that time, but numerous finds of Roman coins and pottery in the peninsula leave no doubt that India was a gainer in its trade with the Roman empire. 

During Gupta period, Indian ports maintained regular maritime relations with Sri Lanka, Persia, Arabia, Ethiopia, the Byzantine Empire, China and the islands of the Indian Ocean. Sri Lanka played an important role both in the foreign trade of the island and in the inter-oceanic commerce between the East and the West. India’s commercial rela­tions with China also flourished and trade was conducted through the land and sea routes. 

Q16. Milindpanho. 

The Milinda Pañha (lit. ’Questions of Milinda’) is a Buddhist text which dates from sometime between 100 BC and 200 AD. It purports to record a dialogue between the Indian Buddhist sage Nāgasena, and the 2nd century BC Indo-Greek king Menander I. 

Q17. Gandhar Art. 

Gandhara art, style of Buddhist visual art that developed in what is now northwestern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan between the 1st century BCE and the 7th century CE. The style, of Greco-Roman origin, seems to have flourished largely during the Kushan dynasty and was contemporaneous with an important but dissimilar school of Kushan art at Mathura (Uttar Pradesh, India). 

The Gandhara region had long been a crossroads of cultural influences. During the reign of the Indian emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE), the region became the scene of intensive Buddhist missionary activity. And in the 1st century CE, rulers of the Kushan empire, which included Gandhara, maintained contacts with Rome. 

The materials used for Gandhara sculpture were green phyllite and gray-blue mica schist which in general, belong to an earlier phase, and stucco, which was used increasingly after the 3rd century CE. The sculptures were originally painted and gilded. 

Q18. Ramgupta. 

Ramagupta (late 4th century CE), according to the Sanskrit play Devichandraguptam, was an emperor of the Gupta dynasty of northern India. The surviving fragments of the play, combined with other literary evidence, suggest that he agreed to surrender his wife Dhruvadevi to a Shaka enemy: However, his brother Chandragupta II killed the Shaka enemy, and later dethroned him, marrying Dhruvadevi. 

Q19. Sudarshan Lake. 

Sudarshan Lake means beautiful water lake. 

It is located in the middle of a hill called Girnaar in Saurashtra. This lake was constructed by the order of Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of Mauryan Dynasty. 

Recontruction of Sudarshan Lake:- 

• By the order of emperor Ashoka his great master Tushasp had rebuilt this lake and strengthened it. 
• In the post-maruyan period, Suvishakh the Governor of Saurashtra, rebuilt the lake on the orders of the Shaka ruler Rudradaman. 
• In the Gupta period by the order of Skandgupta, Chakrapalit rebuilt the lake. Skandgupta spent money with great generosity and got a dam built on this lake. 

Q20. Give an outline of the political history of Sungas. 

Pushyamitra Sunga was the founder of Sunga Dynasty. In 187 B.C. he overthrew the Mouryas and became first Sunga ruler of Sunga dynasty. With Pushyamitra Sunga, there were another eight rulers ruled Sunga Dynasty. Among them Agnimitra, Vasumitra, Bhagavata and Devabhumi were the admirable rulers and stamp their presence with their administrate skills in Indian History. The last two empires only ruled for a long time. 
As soon as Pushyamitra overthrow the Maurya king Brihadrata, he faced various rebellions within the kingdom. But he oppressed all and waged a few wars to stabilise his dynasty. According to the scriptures of Patanjali’s Mahabashva, Pushyamitra Sunga defeated Yavanas and became the strong king in his time. 

Pushyamitra and Contradictions: 

There are some contradictions about Pushyamitra defeating the Yavanas. But the historians believe Pushyamitra had his presence of establishing the Sunga Dynasty. Another evidence according to Malavikaganimtiram and Gargi-Samhita, Vasumitra the grandson of Pushyamitra defeated the Yavanas. However, Agnimmitra and Veerasenal both collated with each other and fought against Vidarbha ruler defeated them made the Sunga Dynasty very strong. Devabhuti was the last emperor of Sunga Dynasty. He was very fond of the company of women. So Vasudeva Kanva, the minister of Sungas was assassinated and established the Kanvas dynasty. 

Administration of Sunga Dynasty: 

Sungas administrated their kingdom with admirable decisions. They understand the problems of the people and supported them at every level. Sungas concentrated on irrigation projects and collected less amount of tax from the farmers. They primarily valued the development of cultural and social development. During their time Hinduism started emerging into the society and showed a wide impact on the people. Buddhism started declining and the king’s withdrawal of royal patronage. During Sungas the Buddhists were procured so that the Buddhist scriptures mentioned Sungas, an exaggerated account of their troubles. Another important event during the Sungas rule, they revived the caste system in the society and advocated about the social supremacy of Brahmins. 

Hinduism and Caste System: 

The Manusmriti also brought into the social life of the people and discussed the reassures the position of the Brahmins in the society. During the Sungas Dynasty, society changes itself and the impact of the Buddhism on the society started melting. Revived cast system lead to the emergence of mixed castes. The Indian society also started mixing with the foreigners. When the cast system interrupted into the society, the Brahmanism gradually transformed as the direction of Hinduism. 

Cultural contributions 
Sungas not only brought the revive of caste system but also concentrated on Art, Education and Philosophy. During the Sunga dynasty, the debates among the people rose on the religious politics and changed entire attitude of society towards Hinduism. The Kings cooperated the eminent persons to flourish the philosophical thoughts among the people. So that the famous Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras and the Mahabhashyas composed during the Sunga dynasty. The famous magnum opus Malavikaagnimitra also composed by Kalidasa in the early period of Sunga Dynasty. 

Q21. Evaluate the works of Gautamiputra Satkarni. 

Gautamiputra Satakarni (65-85 AD) ruled the Satavahana Empire in India’s present-day Deccan region. He was referred to as the Satavahana Dynasty’s most important and powerful ruler.  

Satakarni is a title shared by several Satavahana kings. “Gautamiputra” literally means “son of Gautami.” The real reason for matronymics appears to be that because rulers married a variety of wives from various royal families, a prince was best identified by reference to his mother. 

Gautamiputra Satakarni – Features 

• Gautamiputra Satakani is regarded as the greatest Satavahana dynasty king. 
• It is thought that the Satavahanas were once deprived of their dominions in the upper Deccan and western India. Gautamiputra Satkarni restored the Satavahanas’ fortunes. 

• He claimed to be the only Brahmana who had defeated the Shakas and killed many Kshatriya rulers. 
• He is thought to have destroyed the Kshaharata lineage of his adversary Nahapana. More than 800 Nahapana silver coins (found near Nasik) bear the marks of being restruck by the Satavahana king. Nahapana was a powerful Western Satraps king. 
• His kingdom stretched from Krishna in the south to Malwa and Saurashtra in the north, as well as from Berar in the east to the Konkan in the west. 
• In a Nasik inscription of his mother Gautami Balashri, he is described as the destroyer of the Shakas, Pahlavas, and Yavanas (Greeks), uprooter of the Kshaharatas, and restorer of the Satavahanas’ glory. He is also known as Ekabrahmana (an unrivalled Brahmana) and Khatiya-dapa-manamada (destroyer of the pride of Kshatriyas). 
• He was bestowed with the titles Rajaraja and Maharaja. He gave land to Buddhist monks. The Karle inscription mentions the grant of Karajika village in Maharashtra, near Pune. 

• As mentioned in Rudradaman I’s Junagadh inscription, he probably lost some of the conquered Kshaharata territories to the Kardamaka line of the Shaka Kshatrapas of western India in the later part of his reign. 
• Gautamiputra(son of Gautami) was named after his mother, Gautami Balasri . His son Vasisthiputra Pulumayi succeeded him. 

Rise of Satavahana Power 

• The Satavahana power rose to prominence in the South during the first half of the second century A.D. This time, the man of destiny was a king named Gautamiputra Satakarni. 
• His achievements as a conqueror and as an able administrator elevated the Satavahana Dynasty’s prestige to new heights, and he came to be regarded as its greatest monarch. 

• Gautamiputra first expanded his army and made it a formidable fighting force. Following that, he led expeditions against the foreign Saka rulers, driving them out of Maharashtra. 
• After liberating that region, he fought against the Yavanas and Palhavas and conquered their western territories. 
• Gautamiputra Satakarni, like Emperor Kharavela of Kalinga, recorded his victories over others in his inscriptions. 
• According to his inscriptions, Gautamiputra Satakarni’s empire included Asmaka in the Godavari basin, Suratha or modern Kathiawad, Aparanta or northern Konkan, Anupa’s land on the Narmada, Vidarbha or modern Berar, Akara or Eastern Malwa, and Avanti or Western Malwa. 
• It is thus estimated that Gautamiputra’s territory stretched from Kathiawad in the north to the Krishna River in the south, and from Konkan in the west to Berar in the east. 

• Though Gautamiputra established his power over a vast territory, it proved difficult for him to consolidate his rule over the lands to the north of the Vindhyas. Foreign invasions made it impossible to hold the conquered areas beyond the Vindhya Mountains for long. 
• A foreign race known as the Scythians conquered Malwa during Gautamiputra’s lifetime. 
• Other conquered regions on the northern side of the Vindhya ranges also became independent of Satavahana power. 

Gautamiputra Satakarni – Patron of Brahmanism 

• Gautamiputra Satakarni was a supporter of Brahmanism. True to Brahmanical orthodoxy, he prohibited intercaste marriage among the established ‘Four Varnas.’ 

• On the other hand, he was a kind king who cared about his subjects’ well-being. He took several steps to help his country’s peasant population and improve agricultural conditions. 
• He was also a humanitarian ruler who helped the poor and the needy. 
• During his liberal monarchy, the subjects lived in peace and prosperity. 

Gautamiputra Satakarni – Military Conquests 

• According to historical evidence, the Western Kshatrapas (known as Shakas by the Satavahanas) expanded their empire at the expense of the Satavahanas in the years preceding Gautamiputra Satakarni’s reign. 

• According to his mother’s Nashik inscription, Gautamiputra resurrected the Satavahana power. 
• According to the inscription, he defeated the Shakas (Western Kshatrapas), the Pahlavas (Indo-Parthians), and the Yavanas (Indo-Greeks). 
• It also claims that he triumphed in several fights against a group of enemies. 

Gautamiputra Satakarni – Administration 

• The location of Gautamiputra’s capital is uncertain. In the Nashik inscription of his 18th regnal year he is described as “Lord of Benakataka”. 

• Gautamiputra Satakarni’s inscriptions indicate that his empire was divided into entities called aharas. Each āharā was governed by an amatya or amaca. 
• Three types of settlements are mentioned in the inscriptions: Nagara (city), Nigama (town) and Gama (village). 
• Nashik prashasti’s inscription calls him ekabrahmana.However, this term has also been interpreted differently as “the sole protector of Brahmins” or “a proud defender of Brahmanism”. 
• However, the king also patronized Buddhist monks. 
• According to one of his inscriptions in Nashik, the monks were exempt from taxes and had immunity from any interference from royal officials. 

• Nashik prashasti also states that the joys and sorrows of the king were the same as those of his citizens. He claims he didn’t like destroying life, not even that of enemies who insulted him. 
• The edict compares him to legendary heroes like Rama, Keshava, Arjuna, Bhimasena, Nabhaga, Nahusha, Janamejaya, Sagara, Yayati and Ambarisha. 

Gautamiputra Satakarni and Nahapana 

• Gautamiputra Satakarni was the most powerful Satavahana king. He defeated the Shaka ruler Nahapana and reissued Nahapana’s coins bearing his own royal insignia. 
• The caves excavated by Gautamiputra Satakarni and the western king Kshatrapa Nahapana are located in Nashik. 

• The Nashik prashasti inscription states that Gautamiputra uprooted the Kshaharata (or Khagarata) family, to which Nahapana belonged. 
• Nashik’s inscription dated to the 18th year of Gautamiputra’s reign states that he confirmed a land concession to Buddhist monks who lived on Triraśmi Peak.This land was formerly owned by Nahapana’s son-in-law, Rishabhadatta (aka Ushavadata), who had given it to the monks. 
• A Nahapana coin hoard, discovered at Jogalthambi in the Nashik district, contains coins re-minted by Gautamiputra. These coins have a curved chaitya (Buddhist shrine) and the “Ujjain symbol” (a cross with four circles at the end). 
• Most historians now agree that Gautamiputra and Nahapana were contemporaries and that Gautamiputra defeated Nahapana. 
• The victory of Gautamiputra and the end of the kingdom of Nahapana at the beginning of the Saka era, 78 AD, in the year of the accession of Castana, and considers the entire kingdom of Gautamiputra around 60-85 AD. 

Q22. Who were Kushans? Throw light on the extent of the empire of Kanishka. 

The Kushana Empire or Kushan Dynasty was established by Kujula Kadphises. It was an Indo-European nomadic tribe earlier and was formed by Yuezhi, a group of some Chinese people who ruled over the northern parts of India, Afghanistan, and Central China. 

The Origin of Kushana Empire 

• The Kushans were one of the broad parts of Yuezhi, the first people who were described as nomadic pastoralists in the history of china. They used to live in western China’s Gansu during the First millennium BC. 

• After a major victory of Xiongnu, they split into two groups in 176 B.C. and started migrating to northern Afghanistan, and most of them settled in ancient Bactria. 
• The Yuezhi transformed themselves into a powerful group across South and Central Asia by embracing the cultural values of many linguistic and ethnic groups. 
• In the second century B.C.E., they took control of Bactria by defeating its people in wars. They divided Bactria into five states, one of which was known as the Kushans or Guishuang. 
• A hundred years later, the chief of Kushans merged all other four states into the Kushana Empire. After defeating Parthians and Sakas, they moved towards east India. 

Kanishka 

Kanishka was the king of the Kushana Empire in South Asia. Kanishka is considered to be one of the most significant and important rulers of the Kushan Kingdom, an area that included the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, Afghanistan, and possibly regions north of Kashmir in central Asia.  He was famous for his military, political, and spiritual achievements, and Ashoka and Harshavardhana are considered to be the greatest king by Buddhists. He had a vast empire, it extended from Oxus in the East to Varanasi in the West, and from Kashmir in the North to the coast of Gujarat including Malwa in the South. The date of his accession to the throne is not certain but is believed to be 78 AD. This year marks the beginning of an era, which is known as the Shaka era. Under Kanishka, the Kushan reached a new zenith in wealth and culture that highlighted art, architecture, literature, and science. The tolerance of the kingdom’s ruler toward different cultures and religions placed allowed Kushan to benefit from the knowledge and wealth of some of the greatest civilizations of the time. As a result of such cross-cultural connections, the Buddhist religion owes much of its development and spread throughout Asia to Kanishka and the Kushan. 

It is not known when Kanishka was born. The dates of his reign are also subject of debate, but the most reliable dates seem to be from A.D. 78 to 103. Just how Kanishka came to power is also not known, but he succeeded Wema Kadphises II and was the fourth king of the Kushan. The Kushan Empire came into existence under Kajula Kadipheses in the north of India in Bactria. 

Kanishka was tolerant towards all religions. He issued many coins during his rule. His coins depict Hindu, Buddhist, Greek, Persian, and Sumerian-Elemite images of gods, showing his secular religious policy. He is remembered for his association with Buddhism. He was a Buddhist convert and convened the fourth Buddhist council in Kashmir. This council in Kashmir marked the beginning of the Mahayana cult of Buddhism. He patronized both the Gandhara school of Greco-Buddhist Art and the Mathura School of Hindu Art. He sent Buddhist missionaries to various parts of the world to spread Buddhism. Kanishka is remembered in Buddhist architecture mainly for the multi-story relic tower, enshrining the relics of the Buddha, constructed by him at Peshawar. 

Under Kanishka, the Kushan spread their boundaries to include the area of present-day Afghanistan, northern India, and parts of Middle Asia. The capital city of this kingdom was Puruhapura, or modern Peshawar, Pakistan. The empire flourished economically, as the Kushan were in contact with many of the world’s most important civilizations, including Rome, China, and Parthia (a part of what today is Iran). Trade and commerce were encouraged and cities and urbanization followed. The ruins of a city established by Kanishka have been discovered under present-day Taxila, India. The Kushan also had a great deal of control over a major trade route known as the Silk Road. 

Q23. Sketch the career and achievements of Kharvela on the basis of Hathigumpha inscription. 

The Hathigumpha inscription is the most important record regarding the history and achievements of king Kharavela. This inscription together with many others belonging to his chief queen, son and grandson as well as some high officials are found engraved in many caves of the Udayagiri hill. The Udayagiri hill is one of the twin hillocks near Bhubaneswar which formed an important seat of Jainism in ancient period. The other hillock is called as Khandagiri. Udayagiri and Khandagiri are also called locally as Kumari and Kumara Parvata (hill) respectively. 

The Hathigumpha inscription furnishes the names of four important rulers of ancient India such as Satakarni, Nandaraja, Yavanaraja, and Brihaspatimitra in connection with the activities and achievements of Kharavela. 

Kharavela belonged to the third generation of the Chedi-Mahameghavahana dynasty of Kalinga. Mahameghavahana was the progenitor of the family and was very likely the grandfather of Kharavela. Chetaraja was the immediate predecessor of Kharavela and was very likely his father. The inscription states that Kharavela as a young prince was physically handsome and was brown complexioned. He had many auspicious marks on his body. In his childhood, he received proper training in the field of writing, coinage, accountancy, legal and administrative procedures (lekha-rupa-ganana-vavahara-vidhi). 

In the very first year of his reign he repaired the gates, ramparts and structures of Kalinganagari, his capital, which was then severely damaged by a cyclone. 

In the third regnal year he made arrangements of festivals and gatherings and organized performances of acrobatics, dance and music. The sculptural embellishments of the numerous caves in the Khandagiri and Udayagiri hills are mute witnesses to the claim made in the inscription. 

Kharavela was a great military genius. The prevailing political situation demanded military preparedness not only to check the impending danger from different corners that was threatening the newly acquired independence of Kalinga but also to launch an offensive strategy to demonstrate the military might of the kingdom of Kalinga. The rise of the Satavahanas in the Deccan and assumption of the title daksinapathapati by Satakarni I was a major challenge. The rising strength of Magadha under Brihaspatimitra after the fall of the Sunga-Kanva rule was a major source of danger for Kalinga. The presence of the IndoGreeks in the north and north-west of India and their repeated attempts of establishing political suzerainty over the region was the most disturbing element of the time. The Tamil confederacy in the south consisting of the Ceras, Colas, Pandyas, Satyaputras and Keralaputras with their superior military and naval power was a serious threat to the emerging power of the Mahameghavahanas. In these circumstances the young and ambitious king Kharavela launched a career of conquests and reorganized the military strength of the kingdom. Line 4 of the Hathigumpha inscription points out the fact that he had a vast army consisting of the infantry, cavalry, elephantry and chariots. In the eleventh regnal year Kharavela fought a war with the forces of the confederated Tamil states including the Ceras, Colas, Pandyas, Satyaputras and Karalaputras. 

 Kharavela as a patron of Jainism 

 Unlike Asoka who was a convert to Buddhism, Kharavela was a Jaina by birth. The opening line of the Hathigumpha inscription reads namo arhamtanam namo sava sidhanam, saluting the Arhats and all the Siddhas. His military campaigns were often linked with his religious zeal for heightening the prestige of the Jaina faith. In his 8th regnal year he rescued Mathura, the famous pilgrim centre of Jainism from the Yavanas and brought from there a sapling of the Kalpa tree with a ceremonious military procession to Kalinga. In the eleventh regnal year Kharavela is said to have reclaimed the ancient metropolis of Pithumda by ploughs drawn by asses. Pithumda, the ancient city was once the capital of Kalinga. 

Q24. What do you know about the Sangam Literature? Discuss. 

Sangam literature is the name given to the earliest available Tamil literature. The Sangam age roughly extends between 300 BC and 300 AD*, although most of the work is believed to have been composed between 100 CE and 250 CE. 

The word ‘Sangam’ literally means association. Here, it implies an association of Tamil poets that flourished in ancient southern India. The Ancient Tamil Siddhar Agastyar is traditionally believed to have chaired the first Tamil Sangam in Madurai. This period is known as the Sangam Period. The three chief Tamil kingdoms of this period were the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas. 

The Tolkappiyam, a book of grammar and rhetoric, and eight anthologies (Ettuttokai) of poetry were compiled – Ainkurunuru Kuruntokai,  Narrinai,  Akananuru,  Kalittokai,  Patirruppattu,  Purananuru, and Paripatal. A ninth anthology, Pattupattu, consists of 10 idylls that present a picture of early Tamil life. 

Sangam writings are possibly unique in early Indian literature, which is almost entirely religious. The poems are concerned with two main topics: those of the first five collections are on love (akam), and those of the next two are on heroism (puram), including the praise of kings and their deeds. Paripatal, the eighth collection, contains poems of both types. Many of the poems, especially on heroism, display great freshness and vigour and are singularly free from the literary conceits of much of the other early and medieval literatures of India. Since they deal almost entirely with nonreligious subjects, these poems are also free from the complex mythical allusions that are such an outstanding feature of most Indian art forms. There are nonetheless some instances of religious works in sangam poetry. Paripatal, for example, contains poems about Vishnu, Shiva, Durga, and Murugan. 

Q25. Discuss the history of Guptas up to the reign of Samudragupta.

Around c. 230 CE, the Kushans’ reign ultimately came to an end in northern India, and a considerable part of its empire came under the suzerainty of the Murundas (possibly kinsmen of the Kushans). The Murundas ruled for a short time span of about 25−30 years. This was the Gupta Empire, which kept northern India politically united for more than a century. The Guptas are believed to be feudatories of the Kushans. They are most likely Vaishyas in origin, and they ruled over fertile parts of the madhyadesha, that is, anuganga (the middle Gangetic basin), saketa (modern Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh), and Magadha (mostly Bihar). Prayag (modern Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh) was probably their important centre of power, which, due to its strategic location, further aided in the expansion of the empire. Historians often consider the Gupta period as the ‘Golden age’ of India’s past as it is often remembered for certain key classical features, such as The political unification of a large part of the subcontinent under a mostly centralised government, The production of exceptional Sanskrit literary works, sophisticated stone sculpture and Architecture and innovative developments in the field of science and technology. 

• Maharaja Gupta/Sri Gupta (Founder of Gupta Dynasty)  

 Chandragupta – I (c. 319–335/336 CE)  

• First important king of the Gupta Dynasty; laid the foundations of the Gupta empire and claimed the title of maharajadhiraja (king of kings).  

• Started Gupta era in 319−20 CE  

• His empire included parts of modern Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Bengal; with its capital was at Pataliputra.  

• Enhanced his power and prestige by marrying Kumaradevi, princess of Lichchhavi clan of Nepal  

• Coins were struck in the joint names of the Emperor, his queen, and the Lichchhavi nation, thereby acknowledging this marital alliance.  

• Queen Kumaradevi and King Chandragupta I on a coin of their son Samudragupta 

 Samudragupta (c.335/336–375 CE)  

• Son of Chandragupta I, who followed a policy of war and conquest and enormously enlarged his kingdom. 

 • His rule was one of expansion marked first by the conquest of his immediate neighbours and then by campaigns to the east and the south  

• Due to this policy of his, the historian V. A. Smith has called him the ‘Napoleon’ of India.  

• Had a disputed accession to the throne.  

• His achievements are recorded in a long inscription (an eulogy) engraved on the Allahabad pillar (Prayaga prashasti), whose surface also contains inscriptions of Ashoka and later, the Mughal emperor Jahangir.  

• Unlike the Ashokan inscription which stresses on peace and non-violence, Samudragupta’s inscription extolling his deeds and virtues stresses on violence and military conquest, and gives us information about his different conquests. 

 • It was composed in pure Sanskrit by Harisena, who was not only his court poet but was also a kumaramatya, that is, a high ranking official who described himself by different titles such as sandhivigrahika (minister for peace and war) and mahadandanayaka (judicial/military officer). 

 • He adopted a different policy for each category. In the first category, located in the Ganga Yamuna doab, he followed a policy of annexation. He defeated nine Naga rulers and incorporated their kingdoms in the Gupta empire.  

• In the second category, consisting of neighbouring frontier kingdoms and nine republican states of Punjab and western India, Samudragupta’s conquests awed the frontier kings into submission and they agreed to pay tribute and taxes to him and obey his orders without any fight.  

• He conquered the atavika rajyas, that is, forest kingdoms of central India and forced their rulers into servitude.  

• The Vindyan forest kingdoms had a strategic value as they held the key of the route to south India. This enabled him to proceed to the south along the eastern coast, conquering twelve kings on the way and reached as far as Kanchi near present day Chennai.  

• The Prayag prashasti mentions the defeat of the twelve south Indian rulers (together) by Samudragupta (including Vishnugopa of Kanchi).  

• The ruler of Ceylon sent an embassy to secure privileges for Sinhalese monks at Bodh Gaya. The inscription adds that Samudragupta also received tributes from many kings of south-east Asia.  

• It is generally believed that though he had spread his influence over a vast area, Samudragupta exercised direct administrative control mainly over Indo-Gangetic basin.  

• He celebrated his conquests by performing an ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) and by issuing ashvamedha coins (portraying the scene of the sacrifice) marking the occasion.  

• The magnificence of this monastery was described in the 7th century works of Hieun Tsang/Xuanzang.  

• He is depicted on his coins both as a muscular warrior (flaunting his victories on a hundreds battlefields) as well as a poet, a musician, and a patron of learning.  

• He was a great patron of art and adopted the title of Kaviraja (king among poets).  

• His love for music is attested by his coins that represent him playing on the veena (lyre) on occasion.  

• Legends on his coins include epithets such as parakramah (brave), apratirathah (invincible), vyaghra-parakramah (brave as a tiger), and ashvamedha-parakramah (powerful enough to perform the ashvamedha).  

• Though Hindu by practice, he extended his patronage to other religions, and one of his ministers was the great Buddhist philosopher Vasubandhu. Samudragupta is remembered for his patronage of art and literature. 

Q26 Discuss the cultural contributions of the Guptas. 

The Gupta era saw the emergence of the classical art forms and development of various aspects of Indian culture and civilisation. Erudite treatises were written on a multiplicity of subjects ranging from grammar, mathematics, astronomy and medicine, to the Kama Sutra, the famous treatise on the art of love. This age registered considerable progress in literature and science, particularly in astronomy and mathematics. The most outstanding literary figure of the Gupta period was Kalidasa whose choice of words and imagery brought Sanskrit drama to new heights. Aryabhatta, who lived during this age, was the first Indian who made a significant contribution to astronomy. 

Literature and the Revival of Sanskrit in the Gupta Era 

Gupta literature consists of fables and folktales written in Sanskrit. These stories spread west to Persia, Egypt, and Greece, and became the basis for many Islamic literary works such as, Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves and Aladdin and his Magic Lamp. The Panchatantra and Kamasutra were written during this period. The greatest writer of the time was Kalidasa. 

Kalidasa 

Kalidasa is arguably India’s most famous writer. He lived in the A.D. fourth or fifth century and was a Sanskrit poet and dramatist. The best known plays that have survived from this era are Shakuntala and The Little Clay Cart, the former written by Kalidasa and the latter a comedy also perhaps written by him. Kalidasa is believed to have been a native of Malwa. 

there are strong grounds to believe that he flourished in the Gupta age, and that he was a contemporary of Chandragupta II or Kumaragupta I. 

Kalidasa is best known for several plays, written in the 4th and early 5th century CE, the earliest of which is probably the Malavikaagnimitra (Malavikaa and Agnimitra), a work concerned with palace intrigue. It is of special interest because the hero is a historical figure, King Agnimitra, whose father, Pushhpamitra, wrested the kingship of northern India from the Mauryan king Brihadratha about 185 B.C. and established the Shunga dynasty, which held power for more than a century. 

Kama Sutra 

The Kama Sutra is the famous guidebook on fulfilling “kama”, sensual pleasure, with a particular emphasis on sex, probably produced during the Gupta period. It was written by a celibate yogi named Mallanaga Vatsyayana in the A.D. 4th or 5th century. In the West, it is perhaps best known for the 64 love making positions in recommends, some of which only contortionists can perform, and the sexual art and instructive paintings that often accompanied them. 

Gupta Art 

In the realm of painting also a high degree of proficiency was attained, as appears from the Ajanta (Hyderabad State) caves, whose interiors were freely decorated with frescoes. 

The wall-paintings of Ajanta Cave in the central Deccan are considered among the greatest and most powerful works of Indian art. The paintings in the cave represent the various lives of the Buddha, but also are the best source we have of the daily life in India at the time. There are forty-eight caves making up Ajanta. 

The discoveries at Sarnath and other places show that the plastic art reached a high level of perfection during the Gupta age. 

The craftsmen of the Gupta age were experts in working metals. This is evident from the discovery of several colossal copper statues of the Buddha and an iron pillar at Mehrauli near Delhi. 

Ajanta Cave 

Ajanta Caves (62 miles from Aurangabad) is a set of 30 man-made caves overlooking a wide horseshoe-shaped gorge. Designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, the caves features hundred of paintings and murals made between 200 B.C. and A.D. 650, which are considered to be some of the finest Indian painting and the most important Buddhist art in the world. 

The caves were formed through the erosive action of nearby rivers and enlarged with chisels and hammers by Buddhist monks into residences, temples and schools. Each cave is adorned with statuary. Many contain wall paintings that record episodes in Buddha’s life and major Buddhist events. 

The paintings are mostly frescoes made on a layer of plaster rather than directly on the cave wall. The cave paintings were made by applying mud plaster in two coats on the rock walls. The first was used to fill in the pores of the rough rocks. The plaster for this layer was made of rice husks and other organic materials mixed with mud and covered by sieved gypsum. The second coat was lime plaster that could be painted on. The outlines of the paintings were made with red ocher and filled in with brown, deep red and black. The pigments came mostly from local minerals, many local volcanic rocks, with the exception of bright blues which came from lapiz lazuli from Afghanistan. 

The painting at Ajanta Caves offer insight into the clothing, body ornamentation and court life of the period in which they were painted. Among the best works are the Bodhisattva Padmapani, an expressive work of a male figure with large, soulful eyes and lotus flower in one hand; and a 1,500-year-old work showing a princess getting the bad news that her husband has renounced his crown to covert to Buddhism. In a mural in Cave 10, fifty elephants are painted in different poses. 

 
Gupta Architecture 

Gupta architecture was dedicated to building stone temples to the various Hindu gods. Also, Buddhists built shrines to house the remains of select holy people. These structures were called Stupas. This form of architecture made its way to China where it was altered slightly and renamed the pagoda.Unfortunately, very few monuments built during Gupta reign survive today. Examples of Gupta architecture are found in the Vaishnavite Tigawa temple at Jabalpur (in Madhya Pradesh state) built in A.D. 415 and another temple at Deogarhnear Jhansi built in A.D. 510. Bhita in Uttar Pradesh State has a number of ancient Gupta temples, most are in ruins 

Gupta Science and Astronomy 

The most significant achievements of this period, however, were in religion, education, mathematics, art, and Sanskrit literature and drama. The religion that later developed into modern Hinduism witnessed a crystallization of its components: major sectarian deities, image worship, devotionalism, and the importance of the temple. Education included grammar, composition, logic, metaphysics, mathematics, medicine, and astronomy. These subjects became highly specialized and reached an advanced level. 

Life and Economic Issues in the Gupta Empire 

Literary and archeological evidence dating from this period depicts a ruling class as interested in cultural developments as they were in expanding their political control. In fact the Gupta period is considered something of a golden age, marked by great achievements in literature, music, art, architecture, and philosophy. Fa Xian, a Chinese pilgrim who traveled to Gupta India in the early fifth century, wrote of beautiful cities, fine hospitals and universities, and described a content and prosperous people. 

Q27 “The Gupta period is the Golden age of Indian History”. Do you agree with this view. 

The peace and prosperity created under the leadership of the Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors. This period became known as the Golden Age of India because it was marked by extensive inventions and discoveries in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture. 

Science, Literature and Art 
Although Chandragupta I (320-340 AD) and Samudragupta (340-380 AD) were prominent rulers, the reign of Chandragupta II promoted science, art, philosophy, and religion in his government. Chandragupta’s court was even more influential because it contained the Navartna or the Nine Jewels, a group of nine scholars who produced advancements in many academic fields. 
Scholars of this period include Varahamihira and Aryabhata; Aryabhata is believed to be the first to come up with the concept of zero and who postulated the theory that the Earth moves round the Sun. Aryabhata proposed that the earth is not flat, but is instead round and rotates about its own axis. He also may have discovered that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight. Other scholars helped create the first Indian numeral systems with base 10 originated during the Golden Age. The famous Sushruta Samhita, which is a Sanskrit redaction text on all of the major concepts of ayurvedic medicine with innovative chapters on surgery, dates to the Gupta period. The game of chess probably originated from this period, where its early form was called chaturanga and contained game pieces for infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariots, which would each evolve into the modern pawn, knight, rook, and bishop, respectively. 
Krishna and Radha playing chaturanga (an early version of chess) Scholars during the reign of Chandragupta II (380-413 AD) contributed to many scientific advancements, including in astronomy, mathematics, and medicine.Kalidasa, who was a great playwright, wrote plays such as Shakuntala, which is said to have inspired German writer and stateman, Johann von Goethe centuries later, and marked the highest point of Sanskrit literature, which is also said to have belonged to this period. He also became renowned for his study of the shringara (romantic) element. The Indian scholar Vatsyayana also wrote the ancient Sanskrit text the Kama Sutra, as a standard work on human sexual behaviour. The cultural creativity of the Golden Age of India produced magnificent architecture, sculptures, and paintings. Palaces and temples constructed during the Golden Age contained the highest quality sculptures and paintings. The walls of Buddhist shrines and monasteries were decorated with colorful frescoes, or wall paintings. These paintings showed scenes from the life of the Buddha. Some shrines were cut out of the cliffs and although dark, they were also decorated with sculptures and paintings. The Dashavatara Temple or Vishnu Temple The Golden Age of India produced many temples with many sculptures and pantings. Influence on East and Southeast Asia. 
The Gupta dynasty promoted Hinduism, but supported Buddhist and Jain cultures as well. Gupta Buddhist art influenced East and Southeast Asia as trade between regions increased. The Gupta Empire became an important cultural center and influenced nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia. Classical forms of Indian music and dance, created under the Guptas, are practiced all over the India today. 
Fa Xian was one of the first Chinese travelers who visited India during the reign of Gupta emperor Chandragupta II. He started his journey from China in 399 CE and reached India in 405 CE, and he recorded all of his observations in a journal that was eventually published. During his stay in India up to 411 CE, he went on a pilgrimage to Mathura, Kanauj, Kapilavastu, Kushinagar, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Kashi, and Rajgriha. Fa Xian was pleased with the mildness of administration and, according to his accounts, the Gupta Empire was a prosperous period until trade collapsed as its trade partners disintegrated.