Architecture -

Architecture

General Studies – I

UPSC Mains

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Harappan Architecture

Architecture in the Harappan civilization (3300 BCE- 1500 BCE) was unique when compared to other contemporary civilizations. It shows the early elements of Indian architecture.

Harappan Architecture

Architecture in Harappan Civilization – Features

The style was entirely unique, with no obvious foreign influences.
The structures were built only for functional purposes, not for aesthetic reasons.
The evolution of architecture and sculpture seldom occurs in isolation. The architecture of the Indus Valley, however, is an exception to this rule.
Local cultures influenced architectural traditions, which date back thousands of years to the first farming and pastoral settlements. For example, they built their homes on massive mud-brick platforms.
The elegance achieved with its urban planning is the crowning pearl of IV architecture. No other modern culture can match this level of complexity.

Town planning in Harappan Civilization

Utilitarian perspective: The Harappans were the first to introduce the concept of worker welfare by creating separate worker’s quarters, which has since become a requirement in a welfare state.

Harappan city planning: Harappan cities did not all have the same town design. However, most cities followed the same path. Harappan city designs included the defensive wall, citadel, and lower town, as well as roadways and alleys, drainage systems, and water management systems.

The city plan was created with the use of geometrical tools by the architects.
In most Harappan towns, a certain pattern was followed in which the citadel was located to the west of the lower town, although in some cities it was located to the south.
The cardinal directions of streets and lanes were also used to partition certain rural villages into blocks and sub-blocks. The residences were lined up on both sides of the streets.

Remnants of City of Harappan Civilization

Fortification wall: The fortification wall defended certain Early Harappan towns, as well as numerous Harappan cities. The fortress wall defended Kot Diji, Rehman Dehri, Tarakai Qila, Kohtras, Buthi, Mehrgarh, Dhalewan, Bhirrana, Balu, Kalibangan, and others.

Gateways: Some Harappan cities had only one doorway, such as Lothal and Balu, while others, such as Kalibangan and Surkotada, had two or more. There were two sorts of gateways: one was a plain entry for vehicle activity, while the other had some unique significance.

Bastions: During the Harappan period, defensive walls were used to build bastions. They were used as lookout towers.

Material Used: Bricks, baked bricks, mud, stones, and other mud-based materials were employed.

Intercommunication passage: Some Harappan sites have intercommunication routes that were utilized for the kings’, priests’, and common people’s mobility.

Citadel and Lower Town: Harappan cities were divided into walled sectors in separate portions of the settlement, which were known as citadels and lower-towns.

The citadel was constructed on a raised plate shape, while the lower town was constructed on a lower level.
The citadel was smaller than the lower town. While the citadel included public structures like the Great Bath, the lower town mainly solely had private buildings.
Some cities, such as Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan, Banawali, Rakhigarhi, Lothal, Dholavira, and others, had citadel and lower town settlements, but most cities did not.

Citadel and Lower Town

Grid Pattern: By 2600 BC, the principal towns of the Indus Valley Civilization, Mohenjodaro, and Harappa, were built with blocks split by a grid of straight streets running north-south and east-west.

Disaster-proof: Harappans built their dwellings on platforms to avoid flooding. Drainage system:

Reservoirs: The Harappans were hydraulic engineering masters. They devised an effective technique.

The drains were built with drips at regular intervals for self-cleaning.
Small drains emptied into private drains, and big drains drained into huge drains. The enormous sewers carried the city’s wastewater outdoors, where it was disposed of in open areas or in ponds of various types.
Stones or huge bricks were used to conceal certain drains. Soakage jars, man-hole cesspools, and other drainage system components were vital.

Granaries: The granary was Mohenjodaro’s greatest structure, while Harappa had roughly six granaries or storehouses. These were grain storage bins.

The Great Bath in Mohenjodaro is located to the east of the granary. It is the oldest water tank ever discovered in the ancient world. The bath’s floor was made up of five levels. It was so waterproof that it still holds water today. There were locker rooms. It was most likely utilized at religious events and festivities.

The Great Bath, Mohenjodaro

Houses: The houses were of various sizes. It’s possible that some of them had two levels.

The dwellings were constructed of smoldering bricks. A central courtyard, a well, a bathing place, and a kitchen were all included in most of the dwellings.
Each home was immediately connected to an effective drainage system, indicating a well-developed municipal infrastructure.

No temples: Despite the fact that there is no evidence of temple construction or other religious sites, the people followed religion. Some religious practices have been related to the Great Bath.

No monuments to armament or battle: Military troops or weaponry for battle have not been discovered in this culture’s excavations. While other civilizations’ art has numerous depictions of prisoners, monuments to military triumphs, and other warfare-related activities, the Indus Valley’s art does not contain a single such portrayal.

The early river valley civilization in India was notable for having a cooperative culture without the reign of rulers, according to archaeological evidence. The focus appears to have been on peaceful trade rather than military power expansion.

Lothal’s Town Planning

Historians have discovered a distinct type of urban design at Lothal, Gujarat, on India’s western coast.
This city was split into six sectors, each with its own mud-brick platform.
In terms of town layout, Lothal differs from other Indus Valley Civilization sites in that it has admission to the homes on the main street, whereas other sites have lateral entry.

Dockyard of Lothal

A massive facility on the island of Lothal has been recognized as a tidal port for seagoing ships.
There is a lot of evidence that the towns of the Indus Valley traded extensively with other civilizations throughout that time period.
Trade with towns in this region is mentioned in Mesopotamian records, and items from the Indus region have been discovered in West Asian cities.

Dockyard at Lotha

When the surrounding Kutch desert was a part of the Arabian Sea, Lothal’s dock—the world’s oldest known—connected the city to an ancient stream of the Sabarmati river on the trade route between Harappan settlements in Sindh and the peninsula of Saurashtra.
In ancient times, it was a significant and bustling trading center, with its commerce of beads, diamonds, and expensive decorations stretching far into West Asia and Africa.

Harappan Civilization’s Urban Planning Lessons

The Indus Valley Civilization had an exceptional urban design, particularly in the areas of sanitation and drainage.
It can, to a large extent, give input to current urbanization. Dealing with the haphazard construction of structures has been one of the key issues of urban planning in India.
The streets of the Harappan Civilization were laid out in grid-like layouts, allowing for deliberate and planned expansion.
In contemporary times, Le Corbusier’s ideas for Chandigarh included a rectangular form with a gridiron pattern, allowing for faster traffic flow and a smaller footprint.
The town was likewise firmly divided into residential and common/public sectors in the Civilization.
The Harappan Civilization granaries, with their strategically positioned air ducts and platforms separated into sections, are likewise an example of clever design.
The houses were built in such a way that they didn’t interfere with the road layout in any way. Instead of opening out onto the roadways, the residences had doors that opened into the lanes.
The warehouse at Lothal is an excellent example of precise design.
The civilization’s drains connected each and every home, allowing residents to deposit their trash immediately.
The drains were covered and linked to the bigger sewage outputs immediately. For maintenance purposes, there were inspection holes in the sewers and manholes in the streets.
As a result, the Harappan Civilization’s urban planning has greatly aided us in learning from it.

Conclusion

The Harappan civilization is a significant milestone in the Indian subcontinent’s past. In many aspects, civilization serves as a wonderful model for the modern world. Their knowledge of urban design, water management and harvesting systems, and drainage systems are unrivaled.

Mauryan Architecture

The reign of the Mauryans is a significant period in our historical context. Art and architecture were at their pinnacle during the Ashoka period and fell under the genre of court art. Following Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism, massive Buddhist missionary operations spurred the creation of distinctive sculptural and architectural styles.

The Mauryan Empire was not just known for its illustrious emperors. It was also known for its exceptional expansion in the fields of art, architecture, and literature, among other things. During this time, Indian art underwent a significant transformation from wood to stone. Pottery was also refined during this time period.

Mauryan art refers to art created between 322 and 185 BCE under the Mauryan Empire that was the first empire to control much of the Indian subcontinent. It was a royal art that was supported by Mauryan rulers. The most notable sculptures include pillars, stupas, and caverns.

Mauryan Empire Arts

During the Mauryan Empire, art took numerous forms. The lion capital of Sarnath, the bull capital of Rampurva, and the lion capital of Lauriya Nandangarh are examples of sculptures from this time. The national emblem of Republic India is Ashoka’s Lion-Capital at Sarnath, Madhya Pradesh.

Most significantly, Pataliputra is home to a vast collection of ancient Mauryan art. The city, being the capital, had palace walls, magnificent towers, and pavilions. The majority of them were made of brick or baked clay.

The speciality of the art and architecture of the Mauryan empire isn’t ‘workmanship’ or craftsmanship (with which we are recognizable today), yet the craftsmanship is connected to a political belief system and religious practice. This is apparent both in the structure and support of creative activities:

Court craftsmanship: The enduring remaining parts of workmanship and engineering were the immediate consequence of the support of the Mauryan rulers, mainly Ashoka
Well known forms of art: One associated with the lives, creativity, and in support of conventional individuals. Eg: stone sculptured models and terracotta earthenware puppets, ring stones, and disc-shaped stones

Examples

Kumrahar 80 pillar hall: 72 plus 8 more pillars were arranged in a chessboard pattern and patterns of brick structures were discovered in the area
Rock sculpture of an elephant at Dahui was found. It portrays it as naturalistic and powerful of an animal and its effect is seen as it is walking out of the rock
The caves of Barabar and Nagarjuni hills to the north of Bodh Gaya were inhabited by ascetics in ancient times
Three caves in the Barabar hills are dedicated to inscriptions of Ashoka
Three caves in the Nagarjuni hills have inscriptions of his son Dasharatha
The caves are simple but have highly polished interiors
The only sculptural ornamentation is the doorway of a cave known as the Lomash Rishi cave in Barabar hills

Stupa: During the Mauryan period, particularly during the reign of Ashoka, numerous stupas were built and spread around the nation. The stupas of substantial domes were made of various sizes of brick or stone. The Ashoka stupas were built to commemorate Gautama Buddha’s achievements. The Great Stupa at Sanchi, like the stupa at Bairat in Rajasthan in the third century B.C., was made of bricks and underwent various alterations. The stupa’s inner wall was made of either terracotta bricks or sun-burned bricks.

At Sarnath, there is an Ashokan pillar. Sanchi: An important Stupa site dates to Ashoka’s time. Various large stone sculptures (mainly like human figures) have been found at various sites in and around Patna, Mathura, and other places. These presents mainly yakshas and yakshinis, deities whose worship was part of the culture.

Terracotta Figurines:

Terracotta is a highly malleable material to work with when it comes to sculpture. Archaeologists discovered terracotta female figures during excavations at Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan.

Ashokan Edicts:

Ashokan edicts were sculptured on rocks and pillars
Inscriptions were in Prakrit and Brahmi scripts. In the North western region, Prakrit language and Kharosthi and Aramaic scripts were prevalent
In Afghanistan, Aramaic script and Greek language were seen
At Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra, the script is Kharoshti
At Kandhar, bilingual edicts were found.
Rummindei pillar edict grants to monasteries and tax concessions to them
In Maski and Gurjara inscriptions, the real name of Ashoka is revealed

Conclusion

Mauryan art was developed under the Mauryan Empire, which was the first empire to rule most of the Indian subcontinent, during the 4th and 2nd centuries BC. Mauryan monarchs, notably Ashoka, embraced it as a regal art form. The art and architecture of the Mauryans had a significant influence in the development of Ancient India’s history. Because the Mauryan kingdom spanned such a large territory, its art reached great distances and gained widespread acclaim.

Post-Mauryan Period (Gupta Period) Architecture

India after the Mauryas was not a particularly remarkable time in terms of political unity, but it did see a significant development of Indian art and culture. After Ashoka’s successors failed to maintain the empire, several tiny kingdoms arose across the Indian subcontinent. The Sunga dynasty quickly supplanted the Mauryan Dynasty. Brahmanical sects such as the Shaivas and the Vaishnavas arose during this time.

Post Mauryan Art

In India, there are various sites that date back to the second century BCE.
Vidisha, Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), Bodhgaya (Bihar), Jaggayyapeta (Andhra Pradesh), Mathura (Uttar Pradesh), Khandagiri-Udayagiri (Odisha), Bhaja near Pune, and Pavaninear Nagpur are some of the most renowned examples of the greatest sculpture.

Bharhut

Bharhut stupas are towering, like the Mauryan depictions of Yaksha and Yakshini.
The sculptural volume is modeled in low relief to ensure linearity.
Narratives depict relief panels, and selecting major events improves the clarity of the narratives.
Narrative panels begin with fewer characters, but as time goes on, others, in addition to the main character in the story, have begun to appear in the picture space.
At Bharhut, narrative reliefs demonstrate how artists effectively communicated stories using pictorial language.
One such story is Queen Mahamaya/(Siddhartha Mayadevi’s Gautama’s mother) dream.
The queen is reclining on the bed, with an elephant on the top of the bed moving towards Mayadevi’s womb.
The portrayal of a Jataka story, on the other hand, is quite basic – it is recounted by grouping events according to the geographical area of the story, such as the Ruru Jataka picture, which shows a Bodhisattva deer rescuing a man on his back.
Such Jataka stories were used to decorate stupas.
As the number of stupas built in different sections of the country increased, regional artistic differences emerged.

Bharhut stupa

Sanchi

In terms of stylistic advancement, the next phase of cultural growth at Sanchi stupa-1, Mathura, and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh is remarkable.
Sanchi’s Stupa-1 contains both an upper and lower pradakshina patha or circumambulatory walk.
The sculptures on the entrances of Stupa-1 make it the best example of stupa building (torans).
It began as a tiny brick structure that grew over time and was eventually covered in stone, vedika (fence), and torans.
It includes four ornately decorated Torans (Gateways) portraying scenes from Buddha’s life and Jataka stories.
Figure compositions have a lot of relief and take up a lot of room.
The stance is depicted in a naturalistic manner, with no stiffness in the body.
The story becomes more detailed, and the carving methods appear to be more sophisticated than Barhut’s.
Symbols continued to depict Buddhas or Buddhas from the past (according to the textual tradition there are 24 Buddhas, but only the first one, Dipankar, and the last six are pictorially represented).
Despite the fact that the narrative becomes more complex, the portrayal of the dream episodes stays simple (the dream of queen Mayadevi).
Stupa-2 houses the relics of ten lesser-known Arhats from three generations. (An Arhat is a perfected person who has gained Nirvana in Theravada Buddhism.)
In some Buddhist traditions, the phrase refers to persons who have made significant progress on the path to Enlightenment but have not yet attained full Buddhishood.
The relics of Sariputta and Mahamoggallana/Mahamouglayan can be found in Stupa-3 (disciples of Gautama Buddha).
The top pradakshina patha is likewise peculiar to this location (i.e., totally two pradakshina patha).
The four doorways are adorned with statues in abundance.
An empty throne, feet, chhatra, stupas, and other symbols are used to represent Buddha.
Torans can be built in any of the four directions.
Despite the fact that stupa-1 is the earliest stupa, the carvings on stupa-2’s vedika are older than those on stupa-1.
The Jataka stories became an important component of the stories as well.
Sanchi’s figures, despite their small size, are extremely realistic.
On sculptors, there are guardian images, and salabhanjika sculptures are notable for their quantity (salabhanjika sculptures are sculptures of ladies holding a branch of a tree/plate, etc.).
The representations of salabhanjika support the elongation of the lowermost horizontal bar from below.

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Sanchi stupa

Mathura, Sarnath, Amaravati, and Gandhara Schools

Gandhara (now Pakistan), Mathura in Uttar Pradesh, and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh all became prominent centres of art from the first century CE onwards.
In Mathura and Gandhara, Buddha’s symbolic form was transformed into a human form.
In Gandhara, the sculptural tradition merged Bacteria, Parthia (both Indo-Greeks), and the native Gandhara heritage.
Mathura’s indigenous sculptural culture grew to such prominence that it extended throughout northern India. The stupa sculpture located in Sanghol, Punjab, is the best example.
The Buddha picture at Mathura is based on earlier Yaksha images, whereas it includes Hellenistic characteristics in Gandhara.
Vishnu and Shiva are seen with their respective Ayudhas (weapons).
The characteristics of the several architectural schools are described here, along with an appropriate example from each.
Sultanganj Buddha is a good illustration of this (7.5ft in height).

Gandhara school of art

Sarnath school of art

Mathura school of art

Seated Buddha, Katra mount

Mathura has a vast number of images dating back to the Kushan period.
The second-century CE figure of Buddha from Katra Mount.seated Buddha sculpture from Katra Mount
It depicts the Buddha with two Bodhisattvas as his companions.
The Buddha is sitting in Padmasana with his right hand in Abhaya Mudra.
The Buddha’s face is round, with chubby cheeks.
With a vertical elevated projection, the Ushnisha (hair knot) is depicted.
This period’s Mathura sculptures are produced with a light volume and a fleshy form.
Only one shoulder is covered by the sanghati (garment).
The representations of Padmapani and Vajrapani Bodhisattvas, one holding a lotus and the other a Vajra, are recognised as the attendant figures (Thunderbolt).
The huge halo that surrounds Buddha’s head is adorned with simple geometric designs.
Two flying figures are positioned diagonally above the halo.

Seated buddha – katra mound

Seated Buddha at Sarnath

The late fifth-century CE figure of Buddha from Sarnath is fashioned of chunar sandstone.
Padmasana depicts the Buddha seated on a throne.
Sarnath’s seated Buddha image
As the figures on the throne show, it signifies Dharmachakrapravartana (first sermon).
A Chakra (wheel) is depicted in the centre of the panel below the throne, with a deer on either side and his students.
As a result, it is a portrayal of the historic occurrence of Dharmachakrapravartana, or dhamma preaching.
It is the best example of sculpture from the Sarnath School.
In comparison to earlier images from the Kushana period at Mathura, the face is round, the eyes are half closed, the lower lip protrudes, and the roundness of the cheeks has decreased.
Dhamma Chakra Pravartana Mudra is presented on the hands.
The hair on the Ushnisha is curled in a round pattern.
The goal of ancient Indian sculptures was to depict the Buddha as a wonderful human being who had attained Nibbana (cessation of anger and hate).

Seated buddha – Sarnath

Buddha Head- Gandhara

The Buddha head from Taxila in Pakistan’s Gandhara region dates from the second century CE and is from the Kushan period.
It demonstrates the development of a hybridised pictorial convention during the Gandhara period.
It has Greek and Roman influences.
The Buddha Head features aspects that are typical of Hellenistic art.
Buddha’s curly hair is thick, with a covered layer of shape and linear strokes all over his head.
The frontal plane is large, with bulging eyeballs, half-closed eyes, and a round face and cheeks, unlike representations from other parts of India.
The earlobes, in particular, are extended.
The figures from the Gandhara region have a certain element of heft to them.
Head of the Buddha from Taxila
The form is treated with linearity, and the contours are sharp.
The artwork is highly expressive and the surface is nice.
The centre of attraction is the manifestation of tranquility.
Face modelling improves naturalism and three-dimensionality.
Gandhara style is characterised by the incorporation of Acamenian, Parthian, and Bactrian elements into local tradition.
The origins of Buddha representations, as well as other imagery, can be traced back to the country’s unique geopolitical circumstances.
It’s also worth noting that the northwestern section of India, which is now Pakistan, has always been inhabited since prehistoric times. It was also present during the historical period.

Buddha Head- Gandhara

Amaravati stupa

Many stupas can be found in Vengi, Andhra Pradesh, including Jagayyapetta, Amaravati, Bhattiprolu, Nagarjunakonda, and others.
There is a Mahachaitya in Amaravati, as well as several statues.
Amaravati stupa, like Sanchi stupa, has a pradakshina patha encased within a vedika depicting several narrative sculptures.
The relief stupa sculpture slab that covers the domical stupa structure is a distinctive feature.
The Amaravati stupa’s torana has vanished over time.
The early phase, like Sanchi, is devoid of Buddha images, but in the later phase (2nd and 3rd CE), Buddha images are carved on the drum slabs and in a variety of other places.
In this area, the sculptural form is marked by strong emotions.
The sculpture composition is more intricate than Sanchi, and the bodies are represented with three bends (Tribanga).
Queen Mayadevi’s Dream is also represented here.
Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, and Guntapalle all have their own Buddha images.
Guntapalle is a rock-cut cave in Andhra Pradesh near Eluru.
Sannati is the largest stupa ever dug in Karnataka.
Other Buddhist pictures of Bodhisattvas, such as Avalokiteswara, Padmapani, Vajrapani, Amitabha, and Maitreya Buddha, began to be sculpted alongside Buddha statues.

Amaravati stupa

Cave tradition in western India

Many Buddhist caves dating back to the second century BCE have been discovered in western India.
Chaitya hall with the apsidal vaulted roof (found at Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Bhaja)
Apsidal vaulted vaulted vaulted vaulted vaulted vaulted vaulted vaulted vaulted vaulted vault (found at Thana-Nadsur)
A quadrangular hall with a circular chamber at the back and a flat roof (found at Kondivite)
A stupa is found in the back of all chaitya caves.
Karla, Maharashtra, has the world’s largest rock-cut chaitya hall.
Viharas have been discovered in all of the caverns.
The vihara’s layout consists of a veranda, a hall, and cells surrounding the hall’s walls.
Interior decorative themes such as chaitya arches and vedika decorations over the cave’s cell entrances can be found in many early vihara caves.
Later on, a stupa was erected to the back of the vihara, and it was renamed Chaitya-Vihara.
Junnar (Maharashtra) has the most cave excavations, with more than 200 caves around the town’s hills, whereas Kanheri (Mumbai) has 138 caves explored.
The caves were previously thought to belong to the orthodox Buddhist faith, Theravadins, due to the lack of Buddha pictures.
However, the discovery of a Konkan Maurya inscription stating the Saka era 322 (400CE) has now proven conclusively that cave activity in western India existed.
Many caverns have been turned into modern Hindu sanctuaries and have become popular worship locations.

Ajanta caves

Ajanta is a well-known cave location in western India.
It is situated in Maharashtra’s Aurangabad district.
There are 29 caverns in total, including four chaitya caves.
It is home to the enormous Chaitya-Vihara, which is adorned with sculptures and paintings (murals).
Ajanta is the only surviving example of first-century BCE and fifth-century BCE painting.
Some of the vihara caverns are still under construction.
Varahadeva, the Prime Minister of Vakataka king Harisena; Upendragupta, the native king of the region and Harisena’s feudatory; Buddhabadra, and Mathurasena were all prominent patrons of Ajanta.
Figures in the paintings are hefty, reminiscent of western Indian sculpture.
Cave excavation and painting took place at the same time, and the paintings were dated after the cave excavation.
The paintings’ various skin tones symbolize a multi-colored civilization.
The paintings depict episodes from Buddha’s life, as well as the Jatakas and Avadanas.
The locations of events in the bush and events in the palace are distinguishable.
In Ajanta, images of Padmapani and Vajrapani are quite prevalent.

Ajanta caves

Ellora caves

Ellora is another notable cave site in Aurangabad.
It is 100 kilometers from Ajanta.
There are 32 caves in total, including Buddhist, Brahmanical, and Jain caves.
It is a one-of-a-kind art historic landmark in the country since it contains monasteries affiliated with all three religions that date from the fifth to eleventh centuries CE.
There are 12 Buddhist caves with several Vajrayana Buddhist pictures.
Buddhist caves are large, with single, double, and triple stories.
Pillar patterns originate in Buddhist caves, and when they reach Jain caves (9th century CE), they become exceedingly ornate, with strong protrusion of the decorative elements.
Shaivism is practiced in the majority of Brahmanical caves.
Vishnu’s various avatars are also shown here.
Kailas Leni/Kailasa Temple is the name given to Cave No.16.
It is a rock-cut temple carved from a single piece of rock.
It was constructed in the eighth century CE.
Ravana striving to move Mount Kailash with all his power is a masterpiece of Indian sculpture.

Ellora caves

Elephanta caves

The Elephanta Caves, which are located on Elephanta Island in Mumbai, were once a Buddhist site that was eventually taken over by the Shaivite faith.
It’s from the same era as Ellora.
Bagh, near Indore, MP, is another significant cave location.
The Bagh cave also has murals, including one depicting a group of dancers that resembles the North Indian Garba Dance (originated in Gujarat).
The tradition of rock-cut caves continued in the Deccan, with examples finding not only in Maharashtra but also in Karnataka, primarily at Badami and Aihole, and in Andhra Pradesh in the Vijayawada area, and in Tamil Nadu, primarily at Mahabalipuram, under the patronage of the Pallavas.
When the country’s early history was based on collective public patronage, the post-sixth-century CE era was based more on political patronage.
This is where Maheshmurti’s sculpture (Shiva in the center, Bhairava, and Uma on either side) may be found.

Elephanta caves

Cave tradition in Eastern India

Buddhist caves have been discovered in eastern India, primarily in the coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha, similar to those found in western India.
Guntapalle in the Eluru district is one of the most important places in Andhra Pradesh.
Guntapalle is one of the few locations where structural stupas, viharas, and caverns have all been unearthed in one location.
Rampa Yerrampalem, in addition to Guntapalle, is an important location.
A massive rock-cut stupa was carved out of the hillock in Anakapalli, near Visakhapatnam, during the 4th-5th century CE.
It is a remarkable location since it contains the country’s largest rock-cut stupas.
The Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves in Odisha are another notable cave location.
These caverns are distributed around the area and contain inscriptions from the Kaharvela Kings.
The caves were intended for Jain monks, according to the inscription.
Numerous single-cell excavations can be seen here.
The upper half of the cell is embellished with a succession of Chaitya arches and legends that are still told in the region’s folklore.

Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves

Early Temples

While stupa construction continued, Brahmanical temples and images of gods began to be built.
Myths mentioned in the Puranas were incorporated into narrative expression.
Each temple housed a primary picture of a god.
The temple’s shrines were divided into three types:
Sandhara type: with pradakshina patha
Nirandara type: does not have pradakshina patha.
Sarvatobhadra type: accessible from all sides.
Some major temple sites from this time period include Deogarh (UP), Eran, Nacha-kuthara, and Udayagiri near Vidisha in MP, among others.
These temples are basic structures that include a veranda, a hall, and a shrine in the back.

Deogarh temple

Deogarh is a notable example ,dating from the early sixth century CE.
The main shrine is erected on a rectangular pedestal, with four smaller subsidiary shrines at the four corners, in the panchayatana style of architecture (making it a total number of five shrines, hence the name, panchayatana).
This curving latina or rekha-prasada kind of shikhara further indicates that this is an early example of a traditional nagara temple style.
The temple displays Vishnu in many forms, it was assumed that the four ancillary shrines must have likewise held Vishnu’s avatars, and the temple was identified as a dashavatara temple.

Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh

Conclusion

Gandhara, Mathura, Amaravati, and other post-Mauryan schools of art and architecture, as well as cave traditions that flourished at the time. This article also covers some of the most important architectural sites, including Sanchi, Ajanta, and Ellora. Various monarchs established authority over the large Mauryan Empire from the second century BCE onwards. The great Brahmanical sects, such as the Vaishnavas and Shaivas, rose to prominence during this time.

Temple Architecture

Nagara Style

The Nagara Architecture or North Indian Temple Style is a distinct style of temple architecture that emerged in northern India from the fifth century A.D. onwards. There is only Shikhara (or peak) in this temple type. Even within the Nagara school, different sub-schools arose in the country’s western, central, and eastern regions.

Nagara Architecture – Features

The following are some of the characteristics of the Nagara style of temple architecture:

The temples were mostly built in the Panchayatan architecture, which consisted of minor shrines arranged in a crucified ground plan in relation to the main shrine.
In front of the main shrine, there are meeting halls called mandapas.
Images of the river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna were put outside the garbhagriha.
There were no water tanks or reservoirs on the temple grounds in general and most temples were constructed on high platforms.
There was a pillared approach to the porticos. Shikharas were divided into three categories:

Latina or Rekha-prasad: They were square at the base, with inward-curving walls that came to a point at the top.
Phamsana: They were wider at the base and lower in height than Latinas. They have a straight rising slope.
Valabhi: They had a rectangular foundation with vaulted rooms rising from the ceiling.

The vertical end of the shikhara terminated in a horizontal fluted disc known as the Amalak, which was also known as wagon-vaulted roofs. On top of that, the Kalash, a spherical form, was placed.
The temple’s interior wall was split by three rathas, or vertical planes. Triratha temples were the name for these structures. Temples like pancharatha, saptaratha, and even navaratha arose later.
The ambulatory corridor or pradakshina path surrounding the sanctum sanctorum was covered, and the vertical planes were utilized as separate panels to create story sculptures.
The temple grounds did not have ornate boundary walls or entrances in general.

Basic Features of Nagara Architecture

Subdivisions of Nagara Style – Based on Style

Rekha-Prasada/Latina

Simple shikhara with a square foundation and inward-sloping walls that lead to a point at the top.
Later eras saw the Latina form evolve into a more complicated structure with many towers grouped together.
The garbhagriha was just beneath the highest structure in the center.

Rekha Prasada

Phamsana

Roofs were made up of several slabs that slowly ascend to a single point over the center of the structure.
Roofs do not bend inwards like Latina roofs do, but instead slope upwards in a straight line.

Phamsana

Phamsana structures are wider and shorter than Latina structures.
In many temples, the garbhagriha is built in the Latina style, while the mandapa is built in the Phamsana style.

Valabhi

They had a rectangular base with a vaulted roof that rose into chambers.
Wagon-vaulted roofs were another name for them.

Valabhi

Further Temples with the Nagara Style of Architecture can be classified into:

Central Indian Temples
Western Indian Temples
Eastern Indian Temples
Hill Temples

Sub-Schools Under Nagara Temple Architecture

Odisha School

This particular style of temple building originated in several sections of the Kalinga empire. It had the following features:

The external walls were richly ornamented with exquisite carvings, while the internal walls were simple.
On the porch, there were no pillars and the roof was supported by iron girders instead.
The shikhara at the Odisha school was called Rekha deul.
They had nearly vertical roofs that abruptly bent inwards.
Examples: Sun Temple at Konark (also known as Black Pagoda), Jagannath Temple at Puri, Lingaraj Temple at Bhubaneswar, etc.

Khajuraho School

In the central portion of India, the Chandela rulers established their own unique style of temple building, known as the Khajuraho School or Chandela School. The temples featured the following features:

Both the interior and exterior walls of these temples were richly embellished with carvings.
The sculptures were often erotic in the subject and took influence from Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra.
The temples were composed of sandstone.

Solanki School (also known as Maru-Gurjara style)

This school grew under the patronage of Solanki kings in North-Western India, particularly Gujarat and Rajasthan. The following were some of the characteristics of this school:

There were no sculptures on the temple walls.
The garbhagriha was connected to the mandapa both inside and externally.
The porticos featured ornate arched entrances known as torans.
A distinctive characteristic of this school is the presence of a step-tank known as Surya Kund beside the temple.

Conclusion

The Gupta Dynasty (3rd century CE to 543 CE) was the first documented patron of the Nagara style, which remained popular across northern India until Muslim conquests in the 13th century CE. The Nagara temple building style has thus witnessed a long and illustrious history.

Dravida Style

Dravidian architecture, also known as the South Indian temple style, is a Hindu temple architectural idiom that originated in the southern Indian subcontinent, specifically in South India and Sri Lanka, and reached its pinnacle in the sixteenth century. The bulk of current constructions are found in the southern Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, etc, and are mentioned in the ancient book Vastu shastra as one of three forms of temple architecture.

Dravidian Architecture – Features

The following are characteristics of the Dravidian Style of Architecture:

The temple is surrounded by a high boundary wall that separates it from the rest of the site.
The high entrance doorway in the center of the front wall is known as a gopuram.
The temple grounds were designed in the panchayatan style, with a main temple and four subsidiary shrines.
Vimana: The main temple tower’s form. It’s a geometrically rising stepping pyramid (unlike the Nagara style Shikhara that is curving).
In Dravidian architecture, there is only one vimana on top of the main temple. In contrast to Nagara architecture, the subsidiary shrines lack vimanas.
The word shikhara is used in the Dravida style to describe the temple’s crowning aspect (which is shaped like a stupika or octagonal cupola).
A vestibular tunnel known as antarala connected the assembly hall to the garbhagriha.
The garbhagriha’s entrance was adorned with sculptures of Dwaarpal, Mithun, and Yakshas.
The presence of a water tank inside the temple enclosure was a distinguishing feature of Dravidian architecture.
Subsidiary shrines might be found both within and outside of the main tower.
The garbhagriha is usually found in the lowest tower of a temple. With the passing of time and the growth of the temple population, the town’s further boundary walls were built. The highest gopuram would be found in the most recent building.
There are seven concentric rectangular enclosure walls with gopurams at the Sriranganathar Temple in Srirangam, Tiruchirappalli. The garbhagriha is located in the central tower.
Kanchipuram, Thanjavur (Tanjore), Madurai, and Kumbakonam are famous temple towns in Tamil Nadu.
From the eighth through the twelfth century, temples were not only religious centres, but also governmental centres with enormous swaths of territory.

Dravidian Temple Architecture

Classification of Dravidian Temples

There are basically five different shapes:

Square, also known as kuta or caturasra;
Rectangular, also known as shala or ayatasra;
Elliptical, also known as gaja-prishta or elephant-backed;
Circular, also known as vritta,
Octagonal, also known as ashtasra.

Famous Dravidian Temples in India

Rajaraja Chola finished the majestic Shiva temple of Thanjavur, also known as the Rajarajeswara or Brihadeshwara temple, in the Dravidian style in 1011 A.D. and it is the largest and tallest of all Indian temples.
Gangaikondacholapuram temple was built by Rajendra I to commemorate his victory in the Gangetic delta.
Annamalaiyar Temple in Tiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu, Meenakshi Temple in Tamil Nadu, Airavatesvara Temple in Tamil Nadu, and so on are some well-known Dravidian temples in the south.

Dravidian Architecture – Contribution of Pallavas

Under the Pallava ruler Mahendravarman, temple architecture in South India began. The temples built under the Pallava dynasty reflected the various kings’ artistic preferences and may be divided into four stages chronologically:

Mahendra Group

The initial stage of the Pallava temple architecture was the Mahendra Group.
The temples erected under Mahendravarman’s reign were mostly rock-cut structures.
Unlike the Nagara style, where the mandapas primarily referred to the assembly hall, the temples under him were referred to as mandapas.

Narasimha Group

The Narasimha Group was the second stage in the evolution of South Indian temple architecture.
Intricate sculptures were carved within the rock-cut temples.
The mandapas were now separated into different rathas under Narasimhavarman.
The largest was known as the Dharmaraja ratha, while the smallest was known as the Draupadi ratha.
A successor of the Dharmaraja ratha is the design of a temple in the Dravidian style of architecture.

Rajasimha Group

Rajasimha was in charge of the temple’s third stage of construction.
Under his leadership, actual structure temples began to take the place of rock-cut temples.
Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram, Kailashnath Temple in Kanchipuram, and others are examples.

Nandivarman Group

During the Pallava period, the Nandivarman Group was the fourth stage of temple development.
The temples that were constructed were lesser in size.
The characteristics were virtually identical to those seen in temples built in the Dravidian style.

Dravidian Temple Architecture – Shore Temple – Mahabalipuram

During the time of Pallava monarch Narasimhavarman II, also known as Rajasimha (700–728 AD), the temple was constructed.
It has three shrines: an east-facing Shiva shrine, a west-facing Shiva shrine, and a Vishnu in Anantashayana position in the centre.
It’s unusual to have three primary shrines. It’s likely that the shrines were not all constructed at the same time and were later added.
A water reservoir and a gopuram have been discovered.
Along the temple’s walls are statues of Nandi the bull (Shiva’s mount).
There are also a number of carvings.

Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram

Dravidian Architecture – Contribution of Cholas

The Cholas mastered the Pallava-inherited Dravidian temple style. Moving away from the Pallavas’ early cave temples, the building style got increasingly ornate throughout this period.
Stone became the most common material utilized in the construction of temples.
Gopurams became more prevalent during this time. Carvings of various Puranas were used to embellish them.
During the Chola dynasty, the Vimanas grew in prominence. The temple tower of Brihadeshwara temple, for example, is 66 metres tall.
In the construction of the temple, more attention was placed on the usage of sculptures.

Dravidian Temple Architecture – Brihadiswara Temple – Tanjore

Rajarajeswara Temple is a Shiva temple built around the year 1011 AD by Rajaraja Chola.
This Chola temple is larger than any Pallava, Chalukya, or Pandya construction before it.
More than 100 Chola temples have been preserved. During the Chola period, numerous temples were built.
Its pyramidal multi-story vimana is about 70 metres tall.
A massive shikhara stands atop the vimana.
The shikhara is an octagonal stupika with a dome form. It features two big gopuras with intricate carvings. There are big Nandi figures on the shikhara.
The kalasha on the shikhara’s summit is 3 meters and 8 centimeters tall.
The vimana is covered in hundreds of plaster figurines. Many of these might have been added later in the Maratha era.
Shiva’s principal deity is shown as a massive lingam in a two-story shrine.

Brihadeswara Temple, Tanjore

Conclusion

Temple construction activities that began during the Gupta rule continued to thrive in later periods. The Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, Hoyshalas, and later the rulers of the Vijaynagar kingdom were great temple builders in southern India. Mahabalipuram’s shore temple was built by the Pallava rulers. The Cholas constructed numerous temples, the most famous of which is the Brihadeshwara temple in Tanjore.

Vesara Style

Vesara style of architecture combines both Nagara and Dravidian elements resulting in a hybridized style. Vesara is said to be derived from the Sanskrit word vishra, which means “an area to walk for a long time.” It was conceptualized in the mid-seventh century A.D. by the later Chalukya rulers. The Vesara style is said to have developed in what is now Karnataka, according to several historians.

Vesara Style of Architecture – Background

Chalukya rulers of Badami (500-753 AD) started building temples in a style that was essentially a mixture of the Nagara and Dravida styles, and was refined by the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (750-983 AD) in Ellora, Chalukyas of Kalyani (983-1195 AD) in Lakkundi, Dambal, Gadag, and others, before being epitomized by the Hoysalas (1000-1330 AD).
This style is well represented by the Hoysala temples at Belur, Halebidu, and Somnathpura.

Vesara Style of Architecture – Features

Ornamentation: The Chalukyan temple exhibits indigenous qualities in terms of the temple walls and pillar ornamentation.
The Chalukyan builders altered the Dravida towers by reducing the height of each storey and arranging them in declining order of height from base to top, with a great deal of embellishment on each floor.
Nagara Tower Transformation: Instead of an inclined storey, the vertical shape of the tower has been changed.
Mantapa and Pillars are two unique elements of Chalukya temples:

Mantapa: The mantapa features two types of roofs: domical ceilings (which have a dome-like appearance and are supported by four pillars) and square ceilings (these are vigorously ornamented with mythological pictures).
Pillars: the Chalukya temples’ small ornamental pillars have their unique aesthetic significance.

Some famous temples built in this style are:

Kallesvara temple, Kukkanur;
Ramalingesvara temple, Gudur;
Mahadeva temple, Ittagi;
Kasivisvesvara temple, Lakkundi (and several other temples at Lakkundi);
Brahmadeva temple, Savadi – notable for being fully stellate;
Mallikarjuna temple, Sudi.

Vesara style of Temple Architecture

Vesara Style of Architecture – Influence of Nagara and Dravidian Styles

The shrine plan, subsidiary shrine, and panchayatan style are akin to those of the Nagara School.
The layout of the vestibule connecting the sanctum and the mantapa is similar to that of Odishan temples.
The majority of temple pillars in the Karnataka area resemble the sekhari and bhumija pillars seen in northern India.
The stepped diamond plan, which may be seen in Chalukya temples, is a type of design arrangement.
Nagara articulation projecting stepping diamond or stellate plan is seen in the majority of temples in Kalyani.
During the early half of the Chalukya period, the Dravida influence is most obvious in the vimana of Chalukya temples.
In Chalukya temples, miniature ornamental towers and wall ornamentation exhibit a mix of Nagara and Dravida styles.

Doddabasappa Temple, Dambal

Vesara Style Under Different Rules

Architecture of Chalukyas

Their architecture was a combination of Nagara and Dravidian influences.
Aihole, Badami, and Pattadakal all have temples erected during this period.
There is no covered ambulatory walkway in temples erected during their historical period.
The Virupaksha temple at Pattadakkal, designed in the style of the Kailashnath temple, is the crown gem of Chalukyan architecture.
The Rameshwaram temple at Ellora, which was established in the seventh century, was also constructed during the Chalukyan period.
Other notable structures created during this time period are the Lad Khan temple and the Durga temple at Aihole.

Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakkal

Some noteworthy temples under Chalukyas:

Temple	Description
Ravan Phadi Cave, Aihole, Karnataka	It is an example of the early Chalukya style, which is distinguished by its distinctive sculptural style. Nataraja, one of the most important sculptures at the site, is surrounded by a large depiction of saptamatrikas: three to Shiva’s left and four to his right.
Lad Khan temple, Aihole, Karnataka	One of the oldest Hindu temples, it is dedicated to Shiva. The Chalukya Dynasty’s Kings built it in the 5th century. It appears to be inspired by the wooden-roofed temples of the hills, except that it is made of stone. The temple is named after a man named Lad Khan, who used to live in this temple for a short time.
Durga Temple, Aihole, Karnataka	The temple was constructed between the seventh and eighth centuries. The temple’s architecture is predominantly Dravida, with Nagara influences in some areas. The temple is regarded as a one-of-a-kind and magnificent Chalukya temple.
Temples at Pattadakkal, Karnataka	Pattadakkal is a UNESCO World Heritage Site with ten temples, including a Jain temple. It is possible to see a fusion of various architectural styles here. Four of the ten temples are built in the Dravida style, four in the Nagara style, and one in the Jain style, with the Papanatha Temple built in a fusion of the two styles. Rashtrakutas constructed the Jain temple (Jain Narayana temple) in the ninth century. Loka Mahadevi, the Queen of the Chalukya king Vikramaditya II, built the Virupaksha temple in Pattadakkal, also known as Sri-Lokeswar-Maha-Sila-Prasad (733-44). It was most likely constructed around the year 740 CE to commemorate her husband’s victory over the Pallavas of Kanchipuram. On plan and elevation, it resembles the Kailasnath temple in Kanchipuram. It represents the Dravida architecture at its most developed and perfect stage.

Architecture of Rashtrakuta

The Rashtrakutas seized control of the Deccan around 750 CE from the early western Chalukyas.
The majority of their temples were built in the Chalukyan style.
The Kailashnath temple at Ellora, completed during Krishna II’s reign, is the empire’s characteristic architectural style.
Rashtrakutas also built the Jain temple in Pattadakkal.
Another temple erected during this time period is the Navalinga Temples near Kukkanur.

Navalinga Temples near Kukkanur

Architecture of Hoysalas

The Kesava temple at Belur, erected during Vishnuvardhana’s reign to commemorate his triumph against the Cholas, is an example of this period’s art.
Multiple shrines are arranged in the shape of an intricately constructed star around a central pillared chamber in this temple.
Arrangements like these might be found in temples in Halebid, Somnathpur, and other places during the period.
Another noteworthy temple erected during this time is the Hoysaleswara temple, which is devoted to Lord Shiva.

Vishnuvardhan, the Hoyasala king, built it in dark schist stone in 1150.
It includes a large hall for the mandapa to accommodate music and dance.
No two elephants are in the same position on the temple’s bottom frieze, which depicts a continuous procession of hundreds of elephants with their mahouts.

Hoysaleswara Temple

Architecture in Vijayanagara

The rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire (1335-1565 AD), with their capital at Hampi, were great patrons of art and architecture (Karnataka).
They combined architectural elements from the Chola, Hoysala, Pandya, and Chalukya empires.
The architectural style began to be influenced by the Indo-Islamic style of Bijapur under them, which was reflected in the temples built during this period.
The temple walls were richly decorated with carvings and geometrical patterns.
Goupurams, which were previously only found on the front side, were now constructed on all four sides.
Monolithic rock pillars could be seen.
Temple pillars have a mythical creature called Yali (Horse) carved into them.
The surrounding walls were taller.
In each temple, multiple mandaps were constructed. The central mandap became known as the kalyan mandap.
Local granite form, as it had been for the Badami Chalukyas, was the preferred building material.
Some of the bigger temples include a separate shrine dedicated to the worship of the female counterpart of the male god.
During this time, the concept of secular buildings within temple grounds was also introduced.
The Virupaksha Temple in Hampi and the Hazara Rama temple of Deva Raya I are two prominent temples that represent the Vijayanagar style.

Virupaksha Temple in Hampi

Conclusion

The Dravidian vimana and Nagara-type faceted walls were features of the Vesara architecture. The Vesara temple style is sometimes discovered as a separate style, resulting from the selective merging of the Nagara and Dravida orders. Some of the most adventurous hybrid types of vesara architecture may be found in the southern section of the Deccan, namely in the Karnataka area.

Cave Architecture

Buddhist Cave Architecture

India’s cave architecture is thought to have started in prehistoric times. Buddhist and Jain monks used these caverns as places of worship and residence. The caverns were discovered in western India at first. Indian rock-cut architecture is more diverse and abundant than any other type of rock building seen around the world (more than 1,500 rock-cut structures in India). The Mauryans were masters of cave architecture and are credited as being the forefathers of rock-cut cave architecture.

Buddhist Influence

In the third to second centuries B.C, Buddhism became the dominant religion.
Around this time, three distinct types of Buddhist architecture emerged: the colossal funeral mound or Stupa, the hall of worship or Chaitya, and the monastery or Vihara.
Chaityas and Viharas were built along the hillside since Buddhist and Jain monks tended to stay away from cities and towns.
Chaityas – Buddhist and Jain monks used Chaitya as sites of prayer. It contained a rectangular prayer hall with a stupa in the centre.
The entire Chaitya was divided into three sections: a central section and two aisles. A row of pillars separated the central Chaitya from the two aisles. Chaityas’ inside walls were polished, and the Chaitya’s end was apsidal in shape.
Vihara – Viharas, or monasteries, were built near Chaityas to house monks during the rainy season.
Sculptors here depict numerous scenes from the Buddha’s life. It’s worth noting that, unlike Chaityas, Viharas lacked a stupa.

Ajanta Caves

Ajanta is a group of rock-cut caves near Aurangabad, Maharashtra, amid the Sahyadri ranges on the Waghora River.
There are 29 caverns in all, 25 of which were utilised as Viharas (residence caves) and 4 of which were used as Chaitya (prayer halls).
Between 200 B.C. and 650 A.D the caves were constructed.
The Buddhist monks inscribed the Ajanta caves under the patronage of the Vakataka rulers, one of them was Harishena.
The figures in these caves were painted with frescoes and exhibit a high level of naturalism. The colours were created from local plants and minerals.
The paintings’ outlines were painted in red, and then the insides were painted. The absence of blue in the paintings is one of the most remarkable elements.
The paintings are mostly on Buddhism, including Buddha’s life and Jataka stories.
Five of the caves were built during the Hinayana period of Buddhism, while the other 24 were built during the Mahayana period.
The Ajanta caves are mentioned in the travel journals of Chinese Buddhist pilgrims Fa Hien and Hieun Tsang.

Ajanta Caves

Ellora Caves

Another famous cave architecture site is Ellora Caves.
It is almost 100 kilometres from the Ajanta caves in Maharashtra’s Sahyadri hills.
It consists of 34 caves, 17 of which are Brahmanical, 12 Buddhist, and 5 Jain.
These caves were built by numerous guilds from Vidarbha, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu between the 5th and 11th centuries A.D. (they are newer than the Ajanta Caves).
As a result, in terms of topic and architectural styles, the caverns represent a natural diversity.
It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site with cave temples dedicated to Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
The 17 Hindu caves (caves 13, 29, 14 and 15 are famous and are known as Ravan Ki Khai and Dashavatar caves, respectively), 12 Buddhist caves (caves 1-12), and 5 Jain caves (caves 30-34, Jaina caves include Indra Sabha and Jagannath Sabha) built in close proximity demonstrate the religious harmony prevalent during this period of Indian history.
Cave 16 in Ellora’s Kailasa Temple is the world’s largest single monolithic excavation.

Ellora Caves

Barabar Caves

The Lomas Rishi and Sudama Caves, which were excavated around 250 BC in Barabar Hills in Bihar (Jehanabad district) during the Mauryan Period and are regarded India’s oldest example of rock-cut architecture, impacted Western Indian rock-cut cave architecture.
There are four caves in the Barabar Hills, which were built during the Mauryan Period, mainly under the reign of Asoka (273-232 BC) and his grandson Dasaratha.
Originally built for the Ajivika sect, hundreds of rock-cut caves were eventually built for Buddhist, Jaina, and Brahmanical traditions.
In this way, the Barabar caves were linked to all of the major theological philosophies of the time, including the Ajivika sect, Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism.
This also exemplifies the religious tolerance policies of the two emperors (Ashoka and Dasratha), both of whom were Buddhists.

Barabar Caves

Elephanta Caves

Elephanta cave temples (on a small island off the coast of Bombay) date from the eighth century A.D. and are similar to those at Ellora.
The Elephanta Caves were initially intended to be a Buddhist site, but the Shaivite faith eventually took over.
They are known for their sculpture (showing slenderness in the body, with stark light and dark effects), particularly the great Trimurti figure of Shiva (Shiva is akin to the Trimurti figure of Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesh), as well as Ravana shaking the Kailash, Tandav dance of Shiva, Ardh-narishwara, and other notable sculptures.
It was also designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987.

Elephanta Caves

Bagh Caves

A set of nine Buddhist caves formed about the 6th century A.D. on the bank of the Bagh river in Madhya Pradesh.
It has a similar architectural style to the Ajanta caves.

Bagh Caves

Junagadh Caves

These are Buddhist caves located in Gujarat’s Junagadh region. Although there are no caves here, three separate places can be located.
Khapra Kodiya, Baba Pyare, and Uparkot are the three sites found.
The presence of a 30-50 ft high fortress known as “Upar Kot” in front of the prayer hall is a distinctive feature of the Junagadh caves.

Junagadh Caves

Nasik Caves

“Pandav Leni” refers to a series of 24 Buddhist caves in Nasik. They were created in the first century A.D. during the Hinayana period.
Later, though, the Mahayana sect’s impact may be seen in these caves.
His presence is expressed in the hinayana sect through the usage of motifs and symbols such as the throne and footprints.
Later on, Buddha idols were sculpted inside these caves, indicating Mahayana Buddhism’s impact.
The site also shows a superb water management system, as evidenced by the presence of water tanks carved out of solid rock.

Nasik Caves

Mandapeshwar Caves

It is also known as Montperir Caves, located in Borivali, near Mumbai, and was built as a Brahmanical cave during the late Gupta dynasty.
It was later transformed into a Christian cave, however. Sculptures of Natraja, Sada Shiva, and Ardhanarishwara can be seen among the site’s ruins.
Above the cave precincts are the church and its graveyard.

Mandapeshwar Caves

Udayagiri caves

Caves of Udayagiri (not to be confused with Odisha’s Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves) It’s in Madhya Pradesh’s Vidisha district.
It was built under the patronage of Chandragupta II in the early fifth century AD and is known for its numerous sculptures on the hill walls.
Varaha, or Vishnu’s Boar incarnation, is a renowned sculpture.
One of the earliest Hindu sculptures may be found in the caverns.

Udayagiri caves

Karle Caves

The Karle caves were built around the beginning of the Christian era, and their pattern is similar to that of the Bhaja caves, although they are larger and more spectacular.
The Chaitya at Karle is carved 124 feet deep into the rock and is located two miles north of the Bombay-Poona highway.
Great Chaitya is the most well-known cave (Cave no. 8). It is India’s largest rock-cut chaitya.

Karle Caves

Kanheri Caves

The Kanheri caverns are located near Bombay, and the Kanheri Chaityas follow the Karle Chaitya design.
There are 109 caverns cut out of basalt rock in this area. The biggest caverns were Chaityas, but the majority were viharas.
The Mahayana influence is also visible in the caves’ outside walls, which depict Buddha images.

Kanheri Caves

Conclusion

Rock-cut architecture is the process of constructing a structure by carving it out of natural rock. This involves removing rock that isn’t part of the building until the desired structure is achieved. Indian rock-cut architecture is more diverse and abundant than any other type of rock building seen around the world (more than 1,500 rock-cut structures in India). Furthermore, the sacred nature of Indian rock-cut building is worth mentioning. The Mauryans were masters of cave architecture and are credited as being the forefathers of rock-cut cave architecture.

Indo-Islamic Architecture

The end of the 12th century saw the emergence of Muslim rule in India, which brought together two major architectural traditions, that is Indian architecture together with Muslim architecture which gave rise to Indo-Islamic Architecture. This eventually resulted in a larger synthesis and integration of the greatest aspects of both traditions, resulting in some of the most stunning Indo-Islamic structures on the Indian subcontinent. In India, mosques and mausoleums were the focal points of Islamic architecture.

Indo-Islamic Architecture – Features

With the introduction of arches and domes, the Arcuate style of architecture replaced the Trabeat style.
Minars were built around mosques and mausoleums by Islamic monarchs.
During building, the mortar was utilized as a cementing agent.
During the architectural process, no human or animal figures were used.
In contrast to prior structures, when sculptures were employed, calligraphy grew increasingly popular.
Indo-Islamic architecture added spaciousness, massiveness, and breadth.
Geometry was employed as a decorative motif in architecture. The Arabesque style, which employed geometrical vegetal embellishment, gained popularity.

Arabesque was defined by the use of geometrical vegetal ornamentation and was distinguished by a continuous stem that split regularly, producing a series of counterpoised, leafy, secondary stems. In turn, the secondary stems split or returned to merge with the main stem, forming a decorative pattern.

Arabesque Design

Intricate “jaali” art adorned the structures, symbolizing the value of light in Islamic traditions.

Jaali Work

Water’s importance was also evident in the building. It was primarily employed for aesthetic, cooling, and religious reasons.
The charbagh method, which divides a garden into four halves, the Pietra dura type of inlay of stones and gems on stone walls, and the foreshortening process, in which the inscriptions appear to be closer than they really are.

Charbagh Style

Indo-Islamic Architecture – Types of Buildings

Mosques

Mosques are religious gathering places where men congregate to worship. They are also known as “masjids” and are used for prostration.
They are vast columned halls known as hypostyle halls, and Madrasahs are also part of the same edifice in certain mosques.
The “mihrab” was an essential feature of the mosque. It is the wall niche that denotes the direction of Mecca, to which all Muslims pray.
The “minaret,” a tower adjacent to or related to the mosque from which the call to prayer is broadcast, is the mosque’s most noticeable feature.
The “dome,” also known as “qubba” in Muslim architecture, is the most important (but inessential) aspect of Islamic architecture and a component of the mosque.
In mosques, calligraphy is also the most obvious ornamental feature.

Forts

Forts were palaces; a grander and more complete kind of lodging that formed a city inside a city.
They were constructed for the sake of defense, to keep the kings and their subjects safe from their foes.
In the building of the forts, we can also observe the effects of distinct regional architecture from Gujarat and Punjab.

Tombs

The most remarkable and beautiful edifice erected under the Islamic reign in India was Mumtaz Mahal’s mausoleum, the Taj Mahal, which is an interconnected complex of several structures.
A harmonious and balanced design is implied by white domed marble, spacious gardens, ponds with fountains reflecting the light, scenery, and four towering standing minarets around the edifice.
This exemplifies the Indo-Islamic architectural style’s magnificence. It is a great example of Mughal building art’s architectural achievement.

Styles

Indo-Islamic Architecture – Styles

Imperial Style

It is also known as the early Indo-Islamic style.
The Imperial style of architecture flourished under the various dynasties that ruled from 1191 to 1557 A.D.
Each ruler added his own flavor, but the overall style remained consistent.
Existing structures were turned into mosques using remains from Hindu temples.
The palaces were ornately designed, with arches and domes adorning them.
The usage of floral designs and other Hindu symbols was widespread.
The Imperial style of Architecture includes architecture from the following dynasties – Mameluke style (slave dynasty), Khilji dynasty style, Tuglaq Dynasty style, Lodi Dynasty style.

Slave Dynasty

The Slave dynasty, also known as the Ilbari dynasty, ruled from 1206 until 1290 AD. The Mameluke style of architecture became popular during this time period.
The majority of the structures built during this time period were remodeled of existing Hindu temples.
They also began the construction of a number of structures, the most famous of which is the Qutub Minar.

Only the ground level was built by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, who launched the five-story tower.
Iltutmish built the following three stories, while Feroze Shah Tughlaq completed the fifth.

Qutub Minar

Other examples are the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, located on the grounds of the Qutub Minar, and the Arhai-din-ka-Jhopra in Ajmer.

Khilji Dynasty

From 1290 until 1320 AD, the Khilji Dynasty ruled and developed the Seljuk architectural style.
The usage of red sandstone was prevalent in this period’s structures.
In addition, the dominance of the Arcuate style began at this time. Mortar became widely employed as a cementing ingredient in all types of structures.
Ala-ud-din Khilji’s Alai Darwaza, Siri Fort, etc are examples.

Alai Darwaza

Tughlaq Dynasty

During the Delhi Sultanate, the Tughlaq Dynasty was an era of architectural catastrophe.
However, certain building projects involving grey sandstone were still carried out.
During this time, the emphasis was on the structure’s strength rather than adornment, hence there was less emphasis on decoration. The entrances were designed using both arch and lintel methods.
Examples: Cities of Tughlaqabaad, Jahanpanah, and Ferozabad

Lodi Dynasty

Architecture continued to take a back place under the Lodi dynasty. During this time, only tombs were commissioned.
However, the emergence of double domes was a significant aspect of architecture at this time. It was made up of a hollow dome that was nested inside the upper dome.
The usage of multiple domes was done for two reasons: to strengthen the structure and to reduce the dome’s interior height.
During this period, graves were harsh and barren, with no costly adornment. They were erected in the shape of an octagon, with a diameter of around 15 meters.
A sloping verandah provided support.
Examples include – Sikandar Lodi founded the Lodi Gardens and the city of Agra.

Double Dome Style

Provincial Style

They constructed structures using locally accessible materials, blending regional designs with traditional Muslim elements like domes, arches, minarets, and mihrabs, in this style of architecture, which lasted for two hundred and fifty years.
They built on the ruins of Hindu and Jain temples at first, then developed their own architectural style.

Provincial Schools of Architecture

(i) Bengal School of Architecture (1203–1573 AD)

It was distinguished by its use of bricks and black marble.
During this time, mosques continued to employ sloping ‘Bangla roofs,’ which had previously been used for temples.
Mosques such as Qadam Rasul Mosque in Gour and Adina Mosque in Pandua are examples.

Qadam Rasul Mosque, West Bengal

(ii) Jaunpur School (1394–1479 AD)

Under the patronage of the Sharqi rulers, Jaunpur grew into a thriving center of art and culture.
This form of architecture became known as the Sharqi style, and like the Pathan style, it did not employ minars.
The employment of strong and forceful lettering painted on gigantic screens in the center and side bays of the prayer hall is a distinguishing characteristic of the structures here.
For instance, the Atala Mosque in Jaunpur is an example.

Atala Mosque in Jaunpur

(iii) Malwa School (1405-1569 AD)

The Malwa plateau’s towns of Dhar and Mandu were important architectural centers.
The usage of various colored stones and marbles was the most conspicuous element of the structures here.
The structures had big windows, possibly as a consequence of European influence, and were embellished with stylized arches and pillars.
Even the staircases were employed to improve the building’s appearance.
Minars, on the other hand, were not employed in this school of construction.
Because of the following characteristics, the Malwa School of Architecture, also known as the Pathan School of Architecture, is one of the greatest examples of environmental adaptation of the period.
The structures and rooms were well aired due to the use of big windows, and the pavilions were softly arched, making them airy and allowing the buildings to stay cool throughout the summer.
Man-made reservoirs known as ‘baulis’ were built.
Materials that were readily available in the area were utilized.
The introduction of the batter system by the Tughlaqs improved the situation.
Example: Rani Roopmati Pavilion, Jahaz Mahal, Ashrafi Mahal, etc.

Hindola Mahal, Mandu

(iv) Bijapur School (1490-1656 AD)

The Bijapur Style or Deccan style of architecture developed under the patronage of Adil Shah.
He built a variety of mosques, tombs, and palaces that were notable for their three-arched facades, bulbous domes, and practically spherical shapes with a thin neck.
Cornices were also introduced by him.
The handling of the Bijapur school’s ceilings, which were seemingly unsupported, was a unique aspect.
The structures were reinforced with iron clamps and a thick plaster of mortar. The walls were adorned with intricate sculptures.
For instance, Gol Gumbaj (Adil Shah’s tomb) at Bijapur or Vijayapura.

Gol Gumbaj, Bijapur

Mughal Style

The Mughal style is a type of architecture that thrived in India from the mid-16th to the 17th century under the patronage of the Mughal Empire.
It’s a one-of-a-kind combination of Indo-Islamic and Persian styles, as well as Turkish influences.
The structures were magnificent, with amazingly symmetrical forms and regular patterns, as well as elaborate decoration.

Mughal Style Architecture

Deccani Style

The Deccan Plateau was home to the Deccan Sultanates.
Their architecture was a regional variation of Indo-Islamic architecture, mainly inspired by styles from the Delhi Sultanate and later Mughal architecture, but also from Persia and Central Asia on occasion.
Bahmani Monuments at Gulbarga, Karnataka, Bahmani and Barid Shahi Monuments at Bidar, Karnataka, Adil Shashi Monuments at Bijapur, Karnataka, etc are examples.

Deccan Style Architecture

Conclusion

Indo-Islamic Architecture flourished in Medieval India under the patronage of different dynasties- from Slaves to Mughals. It holds a key position in the architectural development of our country.

Modern Indian Architecture

The Modern Indian architecture was inspired by the Europeans who brought with them a plethora of architectural styles, which can be observed in the various structures they built. The arrival of European colonists coincided with the collapse of the Mughal empire, igniting a power war between the Portuguese, French, Dutch, Danish, and British that lasted until 1947.

Modern Indian Architecture – European Influences

Portuguese Influence

The Portuguese carried the Iberian architectural style with them.
They began by constructing trading terminals and warehouses along the coasts, which were subsequently transformed into fortified cities.
They also imported the notion of ‘patio homes’ and the ‘Baroque style,’ which were established in Europe in the late 16th century to symbolize the Church’s strength.
To produce a dramatic impact, it featured an extensive, complex, and theatrical design. It necessitated the employment of clashing colors.
Some of the prominent construction of this period includes:

The Sé Cathedral in Goa, which was built in 1619 AD, is one of the most prominent structures. It was constructed in the late-Gothic Portuguese style. It contains a big bell that is known as the “Golden Bell.”

( Sé Cathedral, Goa )

Basilica of Bom Jesus, Goa is a UNESCO World Heritage Site that was finished in 1604 AD in the Baroque style. It houses the relics of St. Francis Xavier.
Mumbai’s Castella de Aguada.
St. Paul’s Church in Diu was finished in 1610 AD and is built in the Baroque style.
On the shore of Diu island, Diu Fort was erected in 1535 AD. There is a lighthouse on the fort’s walls, as well as canons. Within the fort complex, there are three churches: St. Thomas Church, St. Paul’s Church, and the Church of St. Francis of Assisi.
Talaulim’s St. Anne’s Church (Goa) was created in the Baroque style and completed in 1695 AD.

French Influence

The French brought with them the notion of urban city planning.
The Cartesian grid layouts and scientific architectural designs were used to build the French colonies of Puducherry and Chandernagore (now Chandannagar, West Bengal).
As a display of authority, they constructed massive structures.
They also established the notion of faceless architecture, which is characterized by a basic facade devoid of embellishment or design, similar to modern structures.
The coastal cities of Mahe (Kerala), Karaikal (Tamil Nadu), and Yanam were also established by the French (Andhra Pradesh).
Puducherry’s Sacred Heart Church and Chandannagar’s Sacred Heart Church are two examples.

( Sacred Heart Church, Puducherry )

British Influence

The Gothic style of building was introduced by the British.
It fused with Indian architecture to create the Indo-Gothic architectural style.
After 1911, a new architectural style called as Neo-Roman architecture evolved.

(i) Indo-Gothic Style

It is also known as the Victorian style; it was a unique combination of Indian, Persian, and Gothic architectural elements.
The following are some of the characteristics of the Indo-Gothic style:

The structures were extraordinarily huge and intricately constructed.
The arches were pointed, unlike the curved arches of the Indo-Islamic era.
One of the distinguishing elements of the Victorian design was the use of wide windows.
It followed sophisticated structural engineering requirements in Britain and featured a crucified ground design.
Steel, iron, and poured concrete became popular.

Victoria Memorial in Kolkata, Gateway of India in Mumbai, and so on are some examples.

( Victoria Memorial, Kolkata )

Difference Between Iberian and Gothic Architecture

Basis	Iberian Architecture	Gothic Architecture
Material Used	The Portuguese employed brick as their primary building material. Roofs and stairwells were made of wood.	The most common materials utilized were red sandstone and coarse limestone.
Structural Variations	The Portuguese maintained their western customs and did not make any structural changes.	The Indo-Gothic style of architecture arose from the British adoption of Indian elements and forms.

(ii) Neo-Roman Design

Following World War I, the British Raj built in the Neo-Roman or Neo-Classical styles.
The best examples of this style were the buildings of New Delhi, designed by Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker.
It is commonly referred to as the “Rome of Hindustan.”
This phase contains the following characteristics:

The structures were unremarkable and without any distinguishing traits.
It was a mash-up of all architectural styles, resulting in a style that was crowded and limited the area for creative expression.
Because of the composite character of the buildings, simplicity, modernism, and usability were severely harmed.
A special emphasis was placed on circular structures.
The usage of eastern themes to realize western architectural styles was overdone.
During this time, the notion of an upturned dome was developed, as seen on the top of the Supreme Court and Rashtrapati Bhavan.

( Supreme Court )

Architecture in the Post-Independence Era

Following 1947, two architectural schools emerged: Revivalist and Modernist.
Both schools, however, were unable to shake the colonial hangover. As a result, the quality of India’s architectural traditions has deteriorated.
For example, the Punjab government commissioned a French architect, Le Corbusier, to construct Chandigarh.

Laurie Baker

Laurie Baker, sometimes known as the “Architect of the Poor,” was the driving force behind Kerala’s revolutionary mass housing design.
He was nominated for the Pritzker Prize, also known as the Nobel Prize for Architecture, in 2006.
His architectural style includes the following features:

Construction of environmentally friendly buildings using locally available materials.
Introduction of the concept of filler slab construction to reduce steel and cement consumption.
Emphasis on ventilation and thermal comfort arrangements.
He is renowned as “Indian Architecture’s Conscience Keeper” and “Gandhi of Indian Architecture.”

( Laurie Baker and his architecture )

Charles Correa

He is well-known for his work in urban design and planning.
He used contemporary architectural concepts to meet local needs and sensitivities.
He designed the Madhya Pradesh Assembly Building, the Mahatma Gandhi Memorial Museum in Ahmedabad, and the LIC Building in New Delhi’s Connaught Place.
In 2006, he received the Padma Vibhusan award.

( Kanchanjunga Apartments, Mumbai by Charles Correa )

Conclusion

As a result, we can observe that art and architecture have had a distinctive expression in the lives and leisure of the people of India from prehistoric times.
Greeks, Arabs, Persians, and Europeans all added to the existing traditions in their own unique ways, resulting in the magnificent potpourri of Indian art and architecture.
Natural and alternative materials such as bamboo, wood, stone, brick, mud, and clay are increasingly being used in modern Indian construction.
‘Contemporary Indian sensibility’ is a broad category that encompasses the work of young architects in India.

Contribution of buddhism in architecture of india

Buddhism is a religion having its origin in Indian soil, which cherished and spread to different parts of the world. With the decease of Lord Buddha different forms of Architectural structures were erected to mark the burial place for Buddha and create a place of worship for followers of Buddhism. These structures were built using traditional material like mud, burnt bricks and stone which has close resemblance to Hinduism and Hindu Architecture as far as choice of material for construction is concerned. The Buddhist Architecture received recognition with development of places of worship which were more ornate and built forms as large domes with cardinal entrance points. Basically three important types of structures were built and used by followers of Buddhism namely Stupa, Chaitya halls and Viharas. Stupa were erected to preserve relics (leftover) of Lord Gautama Buddha, Chaitya halls were large congregational spaces meant for group prayers and worship which some times housed stupa, Viharas were monasteries constructed of bricks or excavated out of rocks where monks stayed and studied in cells built for them. This paper attempts to study how the origin and growth of a new religion, lead to evolution and development of new types of architecture in India. Such an assessment will help to ascertain relationship between structural-form development and with growth of religion and impact of religion on architectural development. This paper is a part of larger work aiming at studying and establishing relationship between architectural development and growth of religion with simultaneous impact on architecture of that era.

Contributions of Jainism

The contributions of Jainism are regarded as one of India’s oldest religious contributions and cultural enrichment. Followers of Jainism revere and follow the teachings of 24 Prophets or Tirthankaras (fort-builders) who according to Jaina beliefs appear in India at the end of each time cycle to remind people of the great principles of living on the planet.

Contributions of Jainism

The Vedic faith had received a serious blow from Jainism.
It resulted in changes in India’s religious climate.
It contributed to the enrichment of Indian culture. Many parts of Indian culture were influenced by it.

Following are some of the major areas of contribution:

Development of Language and Literature

The language and literature of India were affected by Jainism. Vardhaman Mahavir preached in the language of the common man, ‘Ardha-Magadhi.’ People who knew ‘Magadhi’ and ‘Sauraseni’ could readily follow Mahavir’s sermons.
The Jaina Canonical scriptures were eventually composed in the Prakrit language.
As a result, Jainism enriched the vernacular and regional languages. ‘Anga’, ‘Upanga’, ‘Kalpasutra’, ‘Archarangasutra’, ‘Uttaradhyayana Sutra’, and other Jain writings were also composed in Sanskrit.
As a result of the rise of Jainism, the literature flourished as well.

Jain Philosophy

Though the teachings of Jainism were heavily influenced by Vedic philosophy, it also developed its own philosophy.
For example, “syatvad” was a novel and unique philosophy advanced by Jainism. This philosophy is novel in the sense that it seeks the well-being of both individuals and communities.

Position of Women

Another notable contribution of Jainism in the social sphere was the admission of women to the Jaina Sangha without regard for gender.
They used to live a celibate life in order to understand and follow the eternal truths of religion and philosophy. According to South Indian inscriptions, Jainism was liberal toward women.
A large number of laywomen and nuns have been mentioned as Jain devotees. They were drawn from all walks of life, including royalty, nobility, ministers, and generals.
Jakkiyabbe appointed in her husband’s place after his death was skilled inability for good government.

Development of Art and Architecture

Jainism played a significant role in the development of art and architecture. Jainism was favored by the kings.
Many Jain images of Jaina Tirthankara have been discovered in India.
The picture of Bahubali (also known as Gomateswara) in Shravanabelagola, Karnataka, is the highest Jaina image ever sought in India.
Important Jaina Art remnants in India may be found in Mathura, Bundelkhand, Northern Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and Benares.
Udayagiri cave art in Bhubaneswar, Madhya Pradesh, Ellora, and Maharashtra is a one-of-a-kind specimen of Jaina art.
The Dilwara Jain temple in Rajasthan’s Mount Abu is a marble fantasy. As a result, Jainism aided the development of art and architecture in India.

Doctrine of Non-Violence

Mahavira was known as the Buddha of Peace.
He was a non-violence preacher. He criticized Vedic rituals and preached that animals should be treated with kindness and compassion.
He went on to say that both living and nonliving things have life and experience pain. His non-violence philosophy had a significant impact on Indian history.
Even Mahatma Gandhi, a brilliant leader who succeeded in driving the British out of India, adopted the philosophy of nonviolence.

Political Influences

The politics of India were also affected by Jainism. Many kings were influenced by it.
After falling under the grip of Jainism, the great Chandragupta Maurya became the famed Chadramuni.
Mahameghavahana Aira Kharavela, the great emperor, became a devout follower of Mahavira Jaina.
There are numerous examples to choose from. The rulers were courteous and tolerant as a result of adopting the principle of nonviolence.
The influence of Jainism on Indian politics was long-lasting.

Development of Trading Community

Jainism made a significant contribution to the development of the commercial community.
Traders and businessmen were the first to embrace Jainism. It encouraged camaraderie among them, which eventually led to the formation of guilds.
Merchants become wealthy and have a unique position in society.
They became closer to the governing elite as a result of their money and celebrity.
Society became more stable as a result of their collaboration.

Healthy Society

Jainism contributed significantly to the development of a healthy society. Mahavir was an outspoken opponent of the caste system.
With the collapse of the caste system in society, the upper caste’s hold on the lower caste loosened.
People from lower castes were not to be exploited by those from upper castes. The animosity between the two opposing factions of society dissipated.
This resulted in a thriving civilization that had an impact on Indian history.

Charitable Institutions

The growth of philanthropic organizations was greatly aided by Jainism. It had a lasting influence on rulers and other people.
The rulers built numerous caves for the sages of various classes to live in. They also gave out food and clothing to the residents.
With the passage of time, other wealthy people began to emulate this behavior.
They established charity organizations to help the people. As a result, the rise of charity organizations was crucial in achieving social welfare.

Way of Life

Life was given a fresh lease on life by Jainism. It chastised the Vedic religion and Brahmanism’s domination.
As a result, the people’s focus was diverted away from the pointless ritualistic acts. They lived a modest and ordinary life.
This has a significant impact on society and has shaped its future character.

Caste System

The greatest contribution of Jainism in the social sphere is that it made no distinctions based on caste or creed.
According to it, religious salvation is everyone’s birthright, and it is guaranteed if one follows the prescribed rules of conduct. Birth is nothing, caste is nothing, but action is everything, according to it.
The doctrine of Karma made the individual conscious of his responsibility for all actions.

Difference Between Jainism and Buddhism

Buddhism	Jainism
One of Buddhism’s central concepts is rebirth. The unending cycle of birth and rebirth is supposed to be halted only by achieving Nirvana (Enlightenment)	According to Jainism, the cycle of rebirths and deaths will continue until freedom is accomplished, regardless of good or evil conduct.
The Tripitaka is a massive work that is divided into three sections: discipline, discourse, and commentaries.	Agamas are the names given to Jain holy scriptures.
The central Buddhist doctrine is that existence is suffering, and that the only way to avoid suffering (the source of desire) is to dispel ignorance by understanding the Four Noble Truths and following the Eightfold Path.	The respect for all living beings is emphasised in Jainism. Taking the Five Vows and following the precepts of the Three Jewels leads to liberation from the circle of rebirths.
Following Gautama Buddha’s death, Buddhism was split into two major factions. The Mahayana and Theravada are the two major sects of Buddhism.	Svetambara and Digambara are the two major sects of Jainism.
There are beings in heaven, according to Buddhist literature, but they are confined by “samsara.” They are less suffering, but they have not yet attained salvation.	In Jainism, deities are referred to as “Tirthankaras.” They are revered as enlightened teachers whose instructions must be obeyed, rather than being worshipped in the traditional sense.

Relevance of Jain Ideology in Today’s World

In terms of social context, the Jain doctrine of Anekantavada can be translated into three principles:
Absence of dogmatism or fanaticism,
honouring the freedom of others and
peaceful coexistence and cooperation.
Today, religious fanaticism is sweeping the globe, and terrorism is the result, plunging the world into a conflagration of destruction.
In such a situation, Jainism’s liberal stance can be a significant boon to the entire globe in the twenty-first century.
The concept of ahimsa, or non-violence, was another significant addition of Jainism to Indian civilization. We now live in the age of nuclear weapons, and the human race’s survival is in jeopardy as a result. Only a firm belief in and practice of nonviolence will suffice.
Vegetarianism is another result of the concept of ahimsa , and Jainism deserves credit for popularising it around the world.
One of the unique elements of Jainism is forgiveness, which includes confessing one’s misdeeds, asking for forgiveness, and pardoning others.
During natural disasters, the Jain community has always been kind with their donations. It has also built schools, colleges, hospitals, rest houses and inns, as well as animal care centres.
This trend is predicted to continue in the twenty-first century as well.

Conclusion

Jainism had a significant impact on Indian culture. Mahavir Jaina was a vocal opponent of Brahmanism. His humble upbringing and teachings drew him closer to the shambles. Jainism eventually obtained royal backing and flourished inside the country.

Rock-cut Architecture

Rock-cut architecture is the creation of structures, buildings, and sculptures by excavating solid rock where it naturally occurs. The three main uses of rock-cut architecture were temples tombs, and cave dwellings. The Oldest rock-cut architecture is the Barabar caves, Bihar built around 3rd Century BC.

Rock-cut architecture was suited India since the country had plenty of Rocky Mountains, and structures excavated in stone were the ones which were most durable.

Evolution of rock-cut architecture in India

The earliest rock-cut caves are attributed to Ashoka and his grandson Dasaratha.
The early Buddhist architecture covers the period from the 2^nd century BC to the 2^nd century AD. The excavations belonging to this period mostly consists of- the chaitya, viharas. They were mostly constructed of wood. Examples of the early Buddhist architecture can still be seen at Karla, Kanheri, Nasik, Bhaja and Bedsa and at Ajanta.

The second phase of rock-cut architecture began in the 5^th century AD. This phase was characterized by the elimination of timber and by the introduction of the image of the Buddha as a dominant feature of the architectural design. Viharas underwent a slight change during this time, the inner cells inhabited by the monks alone, now housed the image of the Buddha as well.

The next and perhaps the most dominant phase in the tradition in the rock-cut tradition happen to be Dravidian rock-cut style. The primary features of this style are mandapa and ratha. The mandapa is an open pavilion excavated out of a rock. It takes the form of a simple columned hall with two or more cells in the back wall. The ratha is a monolithic shrine carved out a single rock.

Important rock-cut caves

Kanheri caves

They are located near Mumbai
They cover the period from 2^nd to 9^th century AD
They belong to the Hinayana phase of Buddhist architecture
However, additions were made when Mahayana Buddhism was gaining ground. Ex: 5^th century image of Buddha
It has around 100 caves.

Jogeshwari caves

These caves are located within the island of Salsette
They belong to the last stages of Mahayana Buddhism
Brahmanical shrines are also found here

They belong to the second half of the 8^th century

Montpezir

It is also called as Mandapeswar caves. It is situated near Mumbai
The caves are situated in Mount Poinsur, Borivali, a suburb of Mumbai. Originally, the caves were on the banks of the Dahisar Riverbut later the course of the river changed
They are the only Brahmanical caves to be converted into a Christian shrine
It has three caves which are dated to 8^th century

Karla caves

Karla caves are located on Banaghta hills near Mumbai
It belongs to the Hinayana period of the Buddhist architecture
The chaitya here is among the largest and the best preserved in the country
Many traders and Satavahana rulers made grants for construction of these caves.
The main cave, called the Great Chaitya cave, or Cave No.8, features a large, intricately carved chaitya, or prayer hall, dating back to 120 CE.

Bhaja caves

It is located near Pune
They are believed to be excavated in 2^nd century BC
It belongs to the Hinayana Buddhism sect in Maharashtra
These caves are notable for their indications of the awareness of wooden architecture
The carvings prove that tabla – a percussion instrument – was used in India for at least 2300 years

Bedsa caves

It is located near Pune
The Chaitya resembles the great hall at Karle but is smaller.
It has four pillars with carvings of horses, bulls and elephants mounted by make and female riders

Ellora caves

It is located in the state of Maharashtra
is one of the largest rock-cut Hindu temple cave complexes in the world, featuring Hinduism in particular and few Buddhist and Jain monuments with Artwork dating from the 600–1000 CE period
Cave 16 features the largest single monolithic rock excavation in the world, the Kailash temple, a chariot shaped monument dedicated to Lord Shiva.
There are over 100 caves at the site, all excavated from the basalt cliffs in the Charanandri Hills
All of the Ellora monuments were built during the Rashtrakuta dynasty, which constructed part of the Hindu and Buddhist caves, and the Yadava dynasty, which constructed a number of the Jain caves.

Cave 15 of Ellora is known as Dashavatara cave. It belongs to the period of Rashtrakuta king, Dantidurga. This cave mainly depicts Lord Shiva & Lord Vishnu in various forms. This two-storeyed structure has a large courtyard in which stands a monolithic Nandi mandapa.
Notable among the Buddhist caves is Cave 10, a chaityaworship hall called the ‘Vishvakarma cave’, built around 650 CE. It is also known as the “Carpenter’s Cave”, because the rock has been given a finish that has the appearance of wooden beams.

At the north end of Ellora are the five Jain caves belonging to the Digambara sect, which were excavated in the ninth and early tenth centuries could be found

The Indra Sabha (Cave 32), excavated in the 9th century, is a two-storey cave with a monolithic shrine in its court. 19th-century historians confused the Jain Yakshas for alternate images of Indra that were found in Buddhist and Hindu artworks, thus leading to the temple being given the misnomer “Indra Sabha”.

Ajanta caves

The caves are carved out of flood basalt rock of a cliff, part of the Deccan Traps formed by successive volcanic eruptions at the end of the Cretaceous geological period.

They are a group of rock-cut caves in the Sahyadri ranges on Waghora River near Aurangabad in Maharashtra.
There are a total of 29 caves. All of these caves belong to the religion of Buddhism
The caves were developed in the period between 200 BCE to 650 CE.
The construction of the caves received patronage from Vakatakas kings
References to these caves could be found in the observations made by the Chinese traveller Fa Hien and also Hieun Tsang
The earliest group consists of caves 9, 10, 12, 13 and 15A. The murals in these caves depict stories from the Jataka
The second phase of construction at the Ajanta Caves site began in the 5th century. The second phase is attributed to the theistic Mahayana

Elephanta caves

It is located in Mumbai
They belong to 8^th century AD
The Ganesh Gumpha is one of the earliest examples of the Brahmanical temple and has been excavated in a rock terrace, the outside consisting of a columned verandah and approached by steps flanked by sculpted elephants
One of the master-piece of this cave is the three faced-image of Shiva
Other important sculptures here are- Ravana shaking Kailasa, marriage of Shiva and Parvati, Shiva performing the Tandava dance, Ardhanariswara

Udaygiri caves

These caves are located in MP
They contain some of the oldest surviving Hindu temples and iconography in India
They are the only site that can be verifiably associated with a Gupta period monarch from its inscriptions.
Udayagiri caves contain iconography of Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaktism (Durga and Matrikas) and Shaivism (Shiva)
They are notable for the ancient monumental relief sculpture of Vishnu in his incarnation as the man-boar Varaha, rescuing the earth symbolically represented by Bhudevi clinging to the boar’s tusk as described in Hindu mythology
The site has important inscriptions of the Gupta dynasty belonging to the reigns of Chandragupta II (c. 375-415) and Kumaragupta I
The Udayagiri Caves complex consists of twenty caves, of which one is dedicated to Jainism and all others to Hinduism

The contribution of Pallavas to Rock-cut architecture

Perhaps no other empire has garnered appreciation for their contribution to rock-cut architecture as Pallavas. Some of the monuments created by Pallavas during their rule through rock excavation have garnered the worldwide admiration for its beauty and the skills displayed by the artists

The Pallavas were a powerful ancient dynasty that ruled a huge part of Southern India, including present day Tamil Nadu, between the 6th and 9th centuries AD, with Kanchipuram as their capital. They are credited with introducing the Dravidian style of temple architecture.

The first Pallava shrines were rock-cut cave temples. Gradually, these evolved to monolithic shrines carved out of huge rocks, and finally culminated in “structural temples” built from scratch.

Their contribution in realm of rock-cut architecture could be seen in Mahabalipuram. Some of these are highlighted below:

There are multiple rock cut shrines, they consist of cave-like verandahs or mandapas with rows of pillars.
Most of the pillars are embellished with carved lions at their bases, a signature feature found in almost all of Pallava architecture.
Detailed panels depict episodes from Hindu mythology, and niches inside the caves often house sculpted deities. The Varaha Mandapa in Mahabalipuram has stunning carvings that tell stories of Varaha, the avatar of Lord Vishnu in the form of a boar.
The Mahishamardini Mandapa is dedicated to Mahishamardini, a form of Goddess Durga, and the Trimurti Mandapa to the trinity of Lord Brahma, Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva.
The Krishna Mandapa is known for a magnificent panel called Govardhanadhari, portraying Lord Krishna holding up the mythical Govardhana hill to protect the people of his village from torrential rains.

Comparision of art form found at Ellora and Mahabalipuram

Stylistic Similarities

Mahabalipuram monuments are carved out of single stone, which is also the case in case of Ellora Kailash Temple.

The reliefs, sculptures and architecture depict the gods, goddesses found in Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism

The relief panels at both the monuments showcase stories of two major Hindu Epics -Ramayana and Mahabharata

e.g., The Relief panel of Arjuna’s Penance at Mahabalipuram and The relief panel of Ravana shaking Kailash at Ellora

Both have rock-cut and cave temples.

For instance in Ellora’s Cave 21, also called Rameshwar Lena is cave and rock cut temple.

Similarly in Mahabalipuram Varaha cave is cave temple and pancharathas are rock cut.

Gavaksha or Chandrashala a type of horseshoe arch is a common feature

eg. The Draupadi Ratha of Mahabalipuram and the cave 10 at Ellora both share the Gavaksha feature

The carvings of the Mahisasur-Vadh in Ellora is very similar to the Pallava style in Mahabalipuram

Crest Carving: – is a kind of rock carving from the outside is a dominant feature at Mahabalipuram. The same can be seen in the Kailashnath temple and Dasavatara Nandimandapa at Ellora

The barrel vaulted roof a special feature of the Bhima ratha in Mahabalipuram is also a feature at Ellora caves

Apart from the similarities some distinct features make each of these architectural treasures different from the other

Ellora caves have been carved out of the volcanic basaltic formation ,While those at Mahabalipuram are of granitic origin

Ellora architecture also comprises Jain temples and Buddhist chaitya halls

The style of figures at Mahabalipuram are more slender, less mobile, and colder in feeling

While Mahabalipuram showcases deductive carving, Ellora architecture is majorly on core carving techniques.

The cruciform plan of the Kailash temple at Ellora is not found in the Mahabalipuram architecture plan.