Introduction

• The 14th century onwards, significant changes occurred in Europe. Italy, the birth place of renaissance, had been prospering since the 11th to 12th century by supplying various artisanal goods to Europe from the East. Other European countries soon became eager to break the Italian monopoly over trade and began their search for new routes to India and the Spice Islands in Indonesia, then known as East Indies.
• Asia and Africa were the ideal grounds for colonial powers to make their fortune. The Portuguese were the first ones to arrive, followed by the Dutch, the English, the Danes and the French.
• Different trading companies were formed in Europe to carry out external trade. Industrial Revolution and capital formation in Europe led to the search for new markets and further strengthened the colonial pattern. Soon there was clash of interests and struggles started among these colonial powers. From this struggle, the English East India Company emerged victorious and established its monopoly over Indian trade.

Need for New Trading Routes

• In popular western imagination, India was a fabled land of riches and of highly profitable trade. Many foreign rulers had invaded India for its fabulous wealth. Besides the plundering raids, a highly profitable trade between India and European countries dated back to the ancient times.
• Since the days of the Roman Empire, Indian cloths, spices and drugs were in great demand in Europe. Initially, this trade between East and West was carried on along several routes but in beginning of the late fourteenth century a number of changes in the geopolitical conditions in West Asia and Europe forced the traders to search for new routes. Now let’s look at the changes or causes which brought the search for new trading routes.

Geographical Causes

• Unstable Land Route: In the Middle ages (5th century CE to 15th century CE) the land route from the Middle East to Europe was preferred by the traders but with the rise of Arabs in the tenth century and their plundering raids along the route, the land route became unstable and dangerous for trade.
• Safe Passage through Water: While the land with a number of passes fell within the territory of one or the other kingdom, the oceans and seas had not yet been brought under control and thus offered a safe passage.

Technological Advancement

• Navigation: The period witnessed a number of technological advancements. The advancements in navigation (astrolabe for fixing the height of heavenly bodies for navigation and mariner’s compass) by the Arabs and ship building by the Europeans at a time when land route had become unstable made waterways a natural choice.
• Use of Gunpowder: By the end of thirteenth century gunpowder, which was invented in China in the ninth century, spread to Eurasia. As sea voyages gained popularity in the fifteenth century, canons and gunpowder began to be used on ships to protect them from attacks.
  • The use of gunpowder made ships safe from attacks as it added more firepower, was easier to carry, was more stable and helped in making of most destructive weapons of the time.

Political Causes

• Monopolies: The merchants of Venice and Genoa monopolized the trade between Asia and Europe. The western side, i.e. the Mediterranean area, was under the merchants of Venice and Genoa and eastern side, i.e. the Asian side, was under the Arab merchants. These merchants did not allow new merchants from other West European countries to trade through the old routes under their control.
• Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople in 1453 and established the Ottoman Empire in the area stretching from Syria to Egypt. This brought the old routes under the Turkish control. Moreover, expansion of Turkish power in eastern Europe and growth of Turkish navy alarmed the Europeans.
• Rise of New Nation States: The later part of the 15th century saw rise of centralised states with strong kings, like Spain and Portugal, who were keen to partake in trade with Asia. The Kings encouraged, often supported and sponsored geographical explorations and navigators.

Economic Causes

• Economic Growth in Europe: The European economy was expanding rapidly due to expansion of land under cultivation, introduction of improved plough and scientific rotation of crops. As a result of this growth, there was rise of towns and an increase in trade.
• Demand for Spices and Pepper: The economic revival in Europe increased demand for spices and pepper which were needed to make meat palatable.
• Tolls and Taxes: The tolls and taxes were constantly increased on both the European as well as the Asian side of the trade, which reduced the profit margins.
• Profit Maximization: Although the trade between Asia and Europe was carried on along several routes, yet it was highly profitable. However, raids along the land route and monopolies by various groups had been reducing the profits. Thus, there was attempt to maximize profit through new trade routes.

Psychological Causes

• Renaissance: The cultural revival or Renaissance in Europe during the fourteenth century infused a spirit of daring and adventure among the people of Western Europe.
• Glory: Above all the desire to achieve glory acted as inspiring factor for navigators and explorers.
• Mercantilism: A set of economic doctrines and policies involving state intervention to promote national prosperity and strength known as mercantilism had gripped the European states in its clutches.

Religious Causes

• Proselytizing Zeal: The explorers were motivated by zeal to spread Christianity into the new lands.