EUROPEAN HISTORY 

Q & A 

By @Harshit Sharma

Q1. Bill of Rights. 

The Bill of Rights is the first 10 Amendments to the Constitution. It spells out Americans’ rights in relation to their government. It guarantees civil rights and liberties to the individual—like freedom of speech, press, and religion. It sets rules for due process of law and reserves all powers not delegated to the Federal Government to the people or the States. And it specifies that “the enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.” 

Amendments are: 

1. The First Amendment provides several rights protections: to express ideas through speech and the press, to assemble or gather with a group to protest or for other reasons, and to ask the government to fix problems. It also protects the right to religious beliefs and practices. It prevents the government from creating or favoring a religion. 
2. The Second Amendment protects the right to keep and bear arms. 
3. The Third Amendment prevents government from forcing homeowners to allow soldiers to use their homes. Before the Revolutionary War, laws gave British soldiers the right to take over private homes. 
4. The Fourth Amendment bars the government from unreasonable search and seizure of an individual or their private property. 
5. The Fifth Amendment provides several protections for people accused of crimes. It states that serious criminal charges must be started by a grand jury.  A person cannot be tried twice for the same offense (double jeopardy) or have property taken away without just compensation. People have the right against self-incrimination and cannot be imprisoned without due process of law (fair procedures and trials.) 
6. The Sixth Amendment provides additional protections to people accused of crimes, such as the right to a speedy and public trial, trial by an impartial jury in criminal cases, and to be informed of criminal charges. Witnesses must face the accused, and the accused is allowed his or her own witnesses and to be represented by a lawyer.  
7. The Seventh Amendment extends the right to a jury trial in Federal civil cases. 
8. The Eighth Amendment bars excessive bail and fines and cruel and unusual punishment. 
9. The Ninth Amendment states that listing specific rights in the Constitution does not mean that people do not have other rights that have not been spelled out. 
10. The Tenth Amendment says that the Federal Government only has those powers delegated in the Constitution. If it isn’t listed, it belongs to the states or to the people. 

Q2. Stamp Act, 1765. 

The Stamp Act of 1765 was ratified by the British parliament under King George III. It imposed a tax on all papers and official documents in the American colonies. 

Q3. Boston Tea Party. 

The Boston Tea Party was a political protest that occurred on December 16, 1773, at Griffin’s Wharf in Boston, Massachusetts. American colonists, frustrated and angry at Britain for imposing “taxation without representation,” dumped 342 chests of tea, imported by the British East India Company into the harbor. 

Q4. Social Contract. 

The Social Contract helped inspire political reforms or revolutions in Europe, especially in France. The Social Contract argued against the idea that monarchs were divinely empowered to legislate. Rousseau asserts that only the people, who are sovereign, have that all-powerful right. 

Q5. Catherine the great. 

Catherine II (  2 May 1729 – 17 November 1796), most commonly known as Catherine the Great, was the last Empress of Russia (1762 to 1796) and the longest-ruling. She came to power following the overthrow of her husband and second cousin, Peter III. Under her long reign, inspired by the ideas of the Enlightenment, Russia experienced a renaissance of culture and sciences, which led to many new cities, universities, and theaters being founded; along with large-scale immigration from the rest of Europe, and the recognition of Russia as one of the great powers of Europe. 

Q6. Democratic Colonies of America. 

The 13 colonies were divided into three geographical areas: the New England colonies, the Middle colonies and the Southern Colonies. These 13 colonies included Delaware, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, North and South Carolina, New Hampshire, Maryland, New York, Virginia and Rhode Island. 

American colonial government had three types or systems of government: Royal, Charter and Proprietary. These, however, operated using the same basic principles: the 13 colonies elected their own legislature, they were democratic and they all had a governor’s court, a governor and a court system. The governor held executive power in the colony and represented the Crown of England, usually appointed by the King, in the colonial government. An assembly was elected by the citizens of the towns and counties, but often there was a power struggle between governor and assembly as the governor often seemed all too powerful. 

Q7. Old Regime in France. 

The Ancien Régime  also known as the Old Regime, was the political and social system of the Kingdom of France from the Late Middle Ages (c. 1500) until the French Revolution starting in 1789, which abolished the feudal system of the French nobility (1790) and hereditary monarchy (1792). 

Q8. Nicolaus Copernicus. 

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) was a mathematician and astronomer from Poland who proposed that the sun was stationary in the center of the universe and the earth revolved around it. 

Q9. Peter the Great of Russia. 

Peter I, most commonly known as Peter the Great, was a monarch of Russia who modernised it and made it a European power. 

His major achievements include the founding of St. Petersburg in 1703, the victory against Sweden at the Battle of Poltava in 1709, and the birth of the Russian navy, Peter’s lifelong passion. 

Q10. Jacques Necker. 

Jacques Necker was a Genevan banker and statesman who served as finance minister for Louis XVI. Born in Switzerland and trained as a banker, Jacques Necker accumulated a considerable personal fortune before becoming Louis XVI’s finance minister. He implemented a rigorous economic policy, reducing the crown’s expenditure and imposing structural reforms on the way the royal finances were administered. Dismissed and subsequently recalled by the king, Necker’s political career finally came to an end in 1790. 

Q11. What do you know about Isac Newton. 

Sir Isaac Newton was an English mathematician, physicist, astronomer, alchemist, theologian, and author, widely recognised as one of the greatest mathematicians and physicists of all time and among the most influential scientists. He was a key figure in the philosophical revolution known as the Enlightenment. 

Although Isaac Newton is well known for his discoveries in optics (white light composition) and mathematics (calculus), it is his formulation of the three laws of motion—the basic principles of modern physics and theory of universal gravity – for which he is most famous. 

Q12. Who wrote the social contract theory? When it was published. 

The Social Contract, with its famous opening sentence ‘Man is born free, and he is everywhere in chains’, stated instead that people could only experience true freedom if they lived in a civil society that ensured the rights and well-being of its citizens. It was written by Jean-Jacques Rousseau and was first published in 1762. 

Q13. Oliver Cromwell. 

Oliver Cromwell was a political and military leader in 17th century England who served as Lord Protector, or head of state, of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland for a five-year-period until his death in 1658. Cromwell was known for being ruthless in battle, and he twice led successful efforts to remove the British monarch from power. Called a dictator by some — including future British Prime Minister Winston Churchill — Cromwell, a devout Puritan, was particularly intolerant of Catholics and Quakers, though he is also credited by others for helping to lead Great Britain toward a constitutional government. 

Q14. Fall of Bastille during French Revolution. 

The Bastille Prison was stormed on 14th of July 1789. It was attacked because they wanted its gunpowder and weapons. The commander of the prison was killed and the seven prisoners inside were all released. The fortress was completely demolished by people. The Bastille represented the despotic power of the king and was the focus of much resentment. 

Q15. What do you understand by the Scientific Revolution. Write about the changes in Astronomy. 

In very generic terms, scientific revolution refers to the resurrection of modern-day science. This can be said to have happened when developments in various branches of studies, especially in chemistry, physics, math, astrophysics and biology, completely transformed the way of doing many things. The Scientific Revolution is a complicated and twisted term upon whose specific periods and actors nobody agrees upon. A number of scientists and historians have managed to create their own version of the revolution, with their own proofs of various events. Thereupon, several historians claim that it began with Copernicus and was all over with Sir Isaac Newton a hundred and fifty years later. 
 

During this century-and-a-half of scientific innovation, several achievements were made in the field of science and technology. Unique methodologies of observation, hypothesis, experimentation, analysis and conclusion were sculptured and processed during this era, with vital discoveries relating to gravity, the skeletal and muscular systems of the human body being made. It is these multitudes of aspects which, when clubbed together, form a general scientific revolution. A rapid ascension of knowledge, specifically in terms of science, happened like never before in the early 17th century amidst modern-day Europe. Many claim that this wasn’t just limited to this area, but was a global phenomenon with a large assimilation of knowledge in various countries. A common utilization of systematic scientific explanations of the various phenomenon was adopted in general during these times, which is invariably credited to scientific revolution. 

Revolution in Astronomy: 
Discoveries in astronomy were an important part of the Scientific Revolution. These discoveries changed how Westerners viewed the universe. During the Middle Ages, philosophers had created a model of the universe known as the Ptolemaic system. Ptolemy was the greatest astronomer of antiquity. He lived during the second century A.D. It was from his ideas and those of Aristotle that philosophers had built the Ptolemaic system. This system is called geocentric because it places Earth at the center of the universe. 
 
According to this system, the universe is a series of concentric spheres (spheres one inside the other). Earth is fixed, or motionless, at the center of these spheres. The rotation of these spheres makes the heavenly bodies rotate around Earth. 
 
In 1543, Nicolas Copernicus published his famous book, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres. Copernicus believed in a heliocentric, or sun-centered, model of the universe. He believed that the Sun, not Earth, was at the center of the universe. The planets, including Earth, revolved around the Sun. 
 
Another mathematician, Johannes Kepler, used detailed astronomical data to create laws of planetary motion. His observations confirmed that the Sun was at the center of the universe. He also discovered that the orbits of the planets around the Sun were not circular, as Copernicus had thought. Instead, the orbits were elliptical (egg-shaped). 
 
Another mathematician, Galileo Galilei, was the first European to make regular observations of the heavens with a telescope. He discovered mountains on the Moon, four moons revolving around Jupiter, and sunspots. His observations indicated that heavenly bodies were not pure orbs of light, but were composed of material substance like Earth. After Galileo published his discoveries in The Starry Messenger in 1610, the Catholic Church ordered him to abandon the Copernican system. The new system threatened the Church’s view of the universe and seemed to contradict the Bible. In spite of the Church’s position, by the 1630s and 1640s, most astronomers had come to accept the heliocentric model. However, the problem of explaining motion in the universe had not been solved. 
Isaac Newton is considered the greatest genius of the Scientific Revolution. His major work, Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, is also known as Principia (the first word of its Latin title). In the Principia, Newton defined the three laws of motion that govern both the planetary bodies and objects on Earth. The universal law of gravitation explains why the planetary bodies do not go off in straight lines but continue in elliptical orbits around the Sun. The law states that every object in the universe is attracted to every other object by a force called gravity. Newton’s laws created a new picture of the universe. It was now seen as a huge machine that worked according to natural laws. 

Q16. Describe the economic changes in Europe during the 17^th century. 

The age of exploration, seen from the European point of view, introduced major economic changes. The Columbian exchange resulted in Europe adopting new crops, as well as shaking up traditional cultural ideas and practices. The commercial revolution continued, with Europeans developing mercantilism and European imports of luxury goods (notably spices and fine cloth) from eastern and southern Asia switching from crossing Islamic territory in the present-day Middle East to passing the Cape of Good Hope. Spain proved adept at plundering the gold and silver of the Americas, but incompetent at converting its new wealth into a vibrant domestic economy, and declined as an economic power. From the 1600s, the centres of commerce and manufactures shifted definitively from the Mediterranean to the centres of shipping and colonisation on the western Atlantic coastal fringe: economic activity went into a relative decline in 17th century Italy and Turkey – but to the advantage of Portugal, Spain, France, the Dutch Republic and England/Britain. In eastern Europe, Russia suppressed the Tatar slave-trade, expanded commerce in luxury furs from Siberia and rivalled the Scandinavian and German states in the Baltic. Colonial goods like sugar and tobacco from the Americas came to play a role in the European economy. Meanwhile, changes in financial practice (especially in the Netherlands and in England), the second agricultural revolution in Britain and technological innovations in France, Prussia and England not only promoted economic changes and expansion in themselves, but also fostered the beginnings of the industrial revolution. 

Q17. Discuss the features of Ancien Regime in France. 

• The Ancien Regime (Old Regime or Former Regime) was the social and political system established in the Kingdom of France from approximately the 15th century until the latter part of the 18th century under the late Valois and Bourbon dynasties. 
• The estates of the realm were the broad orders of social hierarchy used in Christian Europe from the medieval period to early modern Europe. Different systems for dividing society members into estates evolved over time. The best-known system is the three-estate system of the French Ancien Regime. 

• The First Estate comprised the entire clergy, traditionally divided into “higher” (nobility) and “lower” (non-noble) clergy. In 1789, it numbered around 130,000 (about 0.5% of the population). 
• The Second Estate was the French nobility and (technically, although not in common use) royalty, other than the monarch himself, who stood outside of the system of estates. It is traditionally divided into “nobility of the sword” and “nobility of the robe,” the magisterial class that administered royal justice and civil government. The Second Estate constituted approximately 1.5% of France’s population. 
• The Third Estate comprised all of those who were not members of the above and can be divided into two groups, urban and rural, together making up 98% of France’s population. The urban included the bourgeoisie and wage-laborers. The rural included peasants. 
• The French estates of the realm system was based on massive social injustices that were one of the key factors leading up to the French Revolution. 

Q18. Analyse the Economic changes in Europe during the 18^th century. 

The 18th century saw a big shift in economic thinking. Mercantilism had been the paradigm of the 17th century. It was based on three ideas: 
1) There’s a finite amount of wealth in the world. Thus, one nation becoming richer meant others became poorer. 
2) Wealth is gold and silver. Called “bullionism”, this meant that nations tried to keep gold and silver within their countries, and export goods. 
3) The government should control the economy.  

But in the 18th century, new ideas were emerging. Perhaps there was plenty of wealth to go around. Perhaps dominating trade was as important as hoarding bullion. Perhaps free enterprise could create a better global (and national) economy than government control could do. 

This new approach will eventually be called Classical Liberalism, and is based on Smith’s ideas. For Smith and economic liberals, it’s the freedom of trade — free trade will create the best world for all. For Locke and political liberals, it’s freedom within the body politic. 

An increase in the volume of production in the British Isles, sustained with few interruptions throughout the eighteenth century, increased much more rapidly in the last few decades of that century_ Changes in the organisation and techniques of production, which had already been developing for a long time, burst into greater prominence in an efflorescence of technological invention, and the widespread social and economic changes which came as a consequence produced the expression ‘Industrial Revolution’_ 

The description of these events as a ‘revolution’ is justified on every ground because the technological changes, especially the discovery of new techniques of manufacture in the metal and textile 

industries, changed the whole structure of social organisation and the patterns of life and thought of eighteenth-century Britain. A new society emerged whose social structure was determined by the mechanics of industrial production rather than by those of agriculture. If our attention is confined merely to the technological changes themselves, the concept of an industrial ‘revolution’ in the 1780s becomes only a British phenomenon. The astonishing occurrence of a number of inventions in a short space of time and the rapid concentration of capital and labour in factories, which occurred partly as one consequence of these inventions, give even the merely technological aspects of these changes a revolutionary aspect in Britain because of the speed with which they took place. These innovations were adopted more slowly in most parts of the continent of Europe so that the concept of an industrial ‘revolution’ at the end of the eighteenth century in this narrower sense has no great relevance outside the field of British history. But all the first and greatest analysts of these events, Smith, Ricardo, Saint-Simon, Engels and Marx, set out to analyse, not a series of changes in industrial techniques as such, but the quite new economic basis which these changes created for human society. In this wider sense the industrial revolution was a European phenomenon from the outset. From the continent, what had taken place in late eighteenthcentury Britain was seen, and correctly seen, as profoundly revolutionary, threatening the very foundations of social organisation. The developments in manufacturing industry transformed the economic position of Britain in relation to the European lands and by changing the balance of economic power, changed also the balance of political power. At the same time these events in Britain posed profound social questions to European society. To some, they were a fearful menace to a much-valued social position and way of life, to others a way of improving their income and to many a wonderful new hope for the overturning of a society they detested. 

Q19. What do you understand by ‘Enlightened Despotism’? Briefly write about important enlightened despots. 

Enlightened despotism is a form of absolutism (or despotism) in which rulers were influenced by the Enlightenment. 

Enlightened monarchs embraced the principles of the enlightenment, especially its emphasis upon rationality, and applied them to their territories. 

They tended to allow: 

• Religious toleration. 
• Freedom of speech and the press. 
• The right to hold private property. 

They most fostered the arts, sciences, and education. 

Important Despots: 

King Frederick II of Prussia – Frederick the Great: 

King Frederick II the Great of Prussia (r. 1740-1786) was an enlightened despot and close friend of Voltaire.  In his youth, the German king excelled in the field of philosophy eventually incorporating philosophical idealism into his reign.   

Frederick surrounded himself at court with musicians, writers, artists, and thinkers, including the son of German composer Johann Sebastian Bach.  Though the beginning of his tenure was rather tumultuous and violent against Austria and Poland, the Prussian state expanded and established itself as a global power under his leadership, albeit at the expense of a lifelong rivalry with his contemporary Empress Maria Theresa. 

Under Frederick, the Prussian German arts flourished.  His people enjoyed the highest levels of legal freedom anywhere in Europe.  Religious and social tolerance prevailed – though Frederick still famously expressed anti-Semitic sentiment and persecuted Catholics by seizing clerical land for himself.  Frederick also introduced compulsory education for boys and girls aged 3-14 at state expense. 

The open tolerance of Frederick encouraged immigration which fed the expanding Prussian state and allowed the population to recover from warfare. 

 
Empress Catherine II of Russia – Catherine the Great: 

Empress Catherine II the Great of Russia (r. 1762-1796) was also a close friend and lifelong pen-pal of Voltaire.  Born a German princess, the enlightened despot claimed the Russian throne by her own right via a coup d’état: seizing power from her husband and second cousin the incompetent Tsar Peter III.   

Russia thrived under its German empress.  Catherine embodied the Age of Enlightenment; highly educated, well-read, and well versed in the history of her people.  The Empress attempted to govern in the same styling as the great “westernizer” of Russia, the grandfather of her late husband, Tsar/Emperor Peter the Great (r. 1682-1725). 

Catherine issued legal reform, relaxed censorship law, and expanded Russian territory by means of warfare.  Though she often romanticized the idea of emancipation, Russia adhered to its fascist social structure of feudal serfdom under Catherine and would remain so until the 1860s. 

Catherine also created a delegation composed of officials from each province and social class in Russia (except the serfs) in order to truly rule on the advice of her people.   Counter to enlightened ideals, Catherine heavily favored her noble class: serfdom sustained out of fear of its abolishment crippling Russia’s agrarian economy. 

Empress Maria Theresa of the Holy Roman Empire and Austria: 

Empress Maria Theresa (r. 1740-1780) was a Habsburg Holy Roman Empress and served as Queen of Austria, Hungary, and Croatia (among many others) in addition to giving birth to sixteen children during her lifetime (wow).  Though the Empress ruled as a co-monarch alongside her husband and her eldest son, Maria Theresa reserved absolute control of her state herself. 

Maria Theresa grew up interested in the arts over politics.  Early on in her reign, her contemporary Frederick the Great of Prussia invaded her realm. The ambitious attack sparked a lifelong rivalry and enmity between the two German sovereigns.  Frederick being Protestant and Maria Theresa being Catholic, this event elicited Maria Theresa to serve her enlightened despotism in defense of her church and her familial dynasty – conservatively. 

Under Maria Theresa, Vienna became the cultural capital of northern Europe and epitomized the Age of Enlightenment.  The enlightened despot curtailed the power of the church in her domain, separated the church from (and expanded) the educational system, and broadened the role of her central government to reduce the role of her landed nobility.  By reducing the authority of landowners, Maria Theresa thought she was favoring the serfs. 

Maria Theresa was fervently intolerant of other faiths and sought above all to bolster her Catholic Church in the face of a threat from Prussia. 

King Charles III of Spain: 

King Charles III of Spain was an enlightened despot and proponent of regalism: the doctrine of the secular authority of a monarch overpowering ecclesiastical faculty.  A central tenet of the Age of Enlightenment was an emphasis on humanism.  If the Spanish crown, headed by Charles III, reduced the power of the church, it was done for the people of Spain. 

The enlightened reforms of Charles III took on a similar rational humanist policy to his enlightened despot contemporaries.  The Spanish reforms included economic and social reform in which the authority of the church was reduced in the sphere of public life.  The Spanish state took enlightened policy a step further by totally suppressing monasteries, confiscating their land, and even exiling the Jesuits from Spain. 

Though the enlightened despot managed to shift his political operation to a more humanist outlook, his harsh treatment of his clergy dealt a massive blow to his noble class.  Charles is widely seen by scholars as the savior of a drowning Spanish crown. 

Emperor Joseph II of the Holy Roman Empire: 

Emperor Joseph II of the Holy Roman Empire (r. 1765-1790) – often also referred to as “Kaiser”, the German pronunciation of the Ancient Roman autocratic title “Caesar” – was the eldest son and heir of Maria Theresa.  He is often viewed as the quintessential enlightened despot. 

Much of the enlightened reforms promulgated by his mother were instigated by Joseph.  Though his early reign was eclipsed by his mother, Joseph did not hesitate to further issue enlightened reform when he succeeded the throne himself. 

In 1781, Joseph II issued both the Serfdom Patent and the Edict of Toleration: feudal indentured servitude right was redefined and more equality rights were bestowed to those of religious minorities within the empire’s borders. 

Joseph II fought to abrogate the power of both the clergy and the aristocracy.  The enlightened despot was also an immense patron of the arts. 

In the symbolism of his sweeping liberal reforms, the Emperor famously remarked, “everything for the people, nothing by the people” – phrasing cited in Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address four score and two years later in 1863. 

Q20. Discuss the Significance of American war of Independence. 

The American Revolution was an event of momentous significance in world history. By the term ‘revolution’ we mean a fundamental change in the political and socio-economic system. It signifies a total transformation. The American Revolution effected fundamental changes in the political and socio-economic spheres of the 13 American Colonies. It turned into an independent nation from a combination of colonial dependencies under British rule. 

It is one of the great revolutions that ushered many new concepts such as inalienable rights of man, separation of powers, right to revolution, written constitution, separation of church and state. The revolution had far-reaching consequences which affected practically the whole world. 

The emergence of a new nation: one of the foremost results of the American war of Independence was the emergence of a fully, Independent sovereign new nation named United states of America which would play a leading role in the realm of international politics, world economy, peace and security of the world in later years. 

Inspiration to other countries: America’s example was a great source of inspiration to other countries struggling for their rights and liberties. The American documents “The Declaration of Rights”, Declaration of Independence, Bill of Rights etc. became a new gospel for the oppressed nationalities. The freedom struggle in American became the role model for many countries in their fight against foreign domination. The Indian freedom struggle was profoundly influence by the ideals of American Revolution. 

Affected England profoundly: – American revolution profoundly affected Britain and its politics. It marked the end of the personal rule of king George 3. The British colonial empire sank in size and this considerably affected the British trade, commerce and Industry. The American folly made the British statesmen to adopt a new tolerant policy towards the colonies. In the light of the American experience the British passed the Pitt India Act in 1784 bringing about more effective control over the affairs of the East India Company in India. Similarly, Canada act 1799 improved the administrative set-up of Canada. The internal administration of Ireland was overhauled and she was granted some amount of independence. 

Emergence of new concepts: – Perhaps the greatest legacy of the American revolution was that it popularized certain new concepts and principles. The concept of popular sovereignty, equality of men, inalienable right to be free and independent, right to revolution, representative government etc. were reinforced by the American revolution. The rights of nation enshrined in the ‘Declaration of Independence’ soon caught worldwide attention and it became the slogan of the subjugated colonies. 

Hastened French Revolution: – The French man who had gone over to America to help the American freedom saw political rights and democratic principles. Secondly the financial support to the American colonists compelled king Louis XVI to summon the state general in 1789 which lighted the flame of French Revolution. 

Lessons in Constitution making: – The framing of American Constitution is a landmark event in the history of constitutional development. The American example of the separation of powers between the various organs of government, system of checks and balances, written constitution, federal system, fundamental rights etc. were soon copied by other nations. 

Q21. What were the causes of Glorious Revolution? Discuss its importance in the Modern History of England. 

The Glorious Revolution, also called “The Revolution of 1688” and “The Bloodless Revolution,” took place from 1688 to 1689 in England. It involved the overthrow of the Catholic king James II, who was replaced by his Protestant daughter Mary and her Dutch husband, William of Orange. Motives for the revolution were complex and included both political and religious concerns. The event ultimately changed how England was governed, giving Parliament more power over the monarchy and planting seeds for the beginnings of a political democracy
 Causes: –  

• After the accession of James II in 1685, his overt Roman Catholicism alienated the majority of the population.  

• In 1687 he issued a Declaration of Indulgence, suspending the penal laws against dissenters and recusants.  

• In April 1688, James II reissued the Declaration of Indulgence and ordered all clergymen to read it in churches. 

• Archbishop of Canterbury, William Sancroft and six other bishops were imprisoned when protested its illegality.  

• Later, at trial they were acquitted to the cheers of the London crowd.  

• Mary, James’s daughter by his first wife, Anne Hyde, was a protestant, married to William, the protestant king of Orange.  

• This couple, were to be the James’s successors on the throne.  

• England’s majority protestants were satisfied about their future in the hands of William and Mary.  

• Unfortunately, for them, on 10 June 1688, James Francis Edward was born.  

• He was the son of James II and his second wife Mary Beatrice and was baptized into Roman Catholic faith.  

• This opened the possibility of a permanent Catholic dynasty. The protestants were horrified.  

• On 30 June 1688, group of seven protestant nobles invited the prince of Orange to come to England with an army.  

• William was willing to make the trip.  

• William arrived on 5 November 1688. As soon as he landed at Torbay in Devonshire, people flocked to his support.  

• Many protestant officers, including Churchill, defected and joined William, as did James’s own daughter, Princess Anne.  

• James lost his nerve and declined to attack the invading army, despite his army’s numerical superiority.  

• Later, he got away to France, where his wife, their newly born son James and the generous hospitality of the court of the King Louis XIV awaited him. 

Legacy of the Glorious Revolution: 

Many historians believe the Glorious Revolution was one of the most important events leading to Britain’s transformation from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy. After this event, the monarchy in England would never hold absolute power again. With the Bill of Rights, the regent’s power was defined, written down and limited for the first time. Parliament’s function and influence changed dramatically in the years following the revolution. The event also had an impact on the 13 colonies in North America. The colonists were temporarily freed of strict, anti-Puritan laws after King James was overthrown. When news of the revolution reached the Americans, several uprisings followed, including the Boston Revolt, Leisler’s Rebellion in New York and the Protestant Revolution in Maryland. Since the Glorious Revolution, Parliament’s power in Britain has continued to increase, while the monarchy’s influence has waned.  

Q22. What factors were responsible for the American war of Independence. Examine. 

The American War of Independence (1775-1783) served as a harsh lesson to the British Empire that the dominions they controlled, if treated improperly, would always be susceptible to revolution. 

The British did not wish to see the thirteen colonies break away from their realm, yet their colonial policies in the late-18th century proved consistently disastrous, demonstrating a complete lack of empathy or common understanding with the American population.  

One might argue that independence was always on the horizon in this period for North America, yet even in an era of enlightenment the British seemed, through sheer ignorance, negligence and pride, to seal their own fate. As with any revolution in history, ideological differences may have provided the foundation and impetus for change, but it is so often the events in the run up to the internal struggle that enhance tensions and ultimately trigger the conflict. The American Revolution was no different. Here are 6 key causes of the American revolution. 

 1. Seven Years War (1756-1763) Although the Seven Years War was a multinational conflict, the main belligerents were the British and French Empires. Each looking to expand their territory across numerous continents, both nations suffered mass casualties and racked up copious amounts of debt in order to fund the long and arduous struggle for territorial dominance. Arguably the most important theatre of the war was in North America, which in 1756 had been geographically split between the empires of the British, French and Spanish. With key but costly victories at Quebec and Fort Niagara, the British were able to emerge victorious from the war and henceforth assimilated large swathes of previously held French territory in Canada and the Mid-West as a result of the Treaty of Paris in 1763. While British victory had removed any French and Native Indian threat (to an extent) to the thirteen colonies, the war had led to greater economic hardship in the US and an acknowledgment of the cultural differences between colonists and Britons. Clashes in ideologies became all the more apparent as the British looked to levy higher taxes on the thirteen colonies in order to heal the debt they incurred from military and naval spending.  

Taxes and Duties  

If the Seven Years War had not exacerbated the divide between the colonies and the British metropole, the implementation of colonial taxation certainly did. The British witnessed these tensions first-hand when the Stamp Act of 1765 was introduced. Colonists bitterly opposed the new direct taxation on printed materials and forced the British Government to eventually repeal the legislation a year later. “No taxation without representation” became an iconic slogan, as it effectively summarised the colonial outrage at the fact they were being taxed against their will and with no form of representation in Parliament. A key cause of the American revolution which followed the Stamp Act was the introduction of Townshend Duties in 1767 and 1768. This was a series of acts that imposed new forms of indirect taxation of goods such as glass, paint, paper, lead and tea. These duties caused outrage in the colonies and became the main root of spontaneous and violent opposition. Encouraged and rallied by propaganda leaflets and posters, such as those created by Paul Revere, colonists rioted and organised merchant boycotts. Eventually, the colonial response was met with fierce repression.  

Boston Massacre (1770)  

Just a year after the imposition of the Townshend Duties, the governor of Massachusetts was already calling for the other twelve colonies to join his state in resisting the British and boycotting their goods, which coincided with a riot in Boston over the seizure of a boat aptly named Liberty for smuggling. Despite these tremors of discontent, nothing suggested that the colonies might seriously consider fighting their British masters until the infamous Boston massacre of March 1770. This was one of the most significant causes of the American revolution. A detachment of redcoats were accosted by a large crowd in the city, and bombarded with snowballs and more dangerous missiles as the cold and frustrated townsfolk vented their 3 anger on the soldiers. Suddenly, they opened fire after a soldier was knocked down, killing five and injuring six others. The Boston Massacre is often represented as the inevitable start of a revolution, but in fact it initially prompted Lord North’s government to withdraw the Townshend Acts and for a time it seemed like the worst of the crisis was over. However, radicals such as Samuel Adams and Thomas Jefferson kept the resentment ticking over.  

Boston Tea Party (1773)  

A switch had been flicked. The British government had a chance to make important political concessions to these disgruntled voices, yet they chose not to, and with this decision, the opportunity to avert rebellion was lost. In 1772, a British ship which had been enforcing unpopular trade regulations was burned by angry patriots, while Samuel Adams set about creating Committees of Correspondence – a network of rebels across all of the 13 colonies. Yet it was in December 1773 that the most famous and overt display of anger and resistance took place. A group of colonists led by Adams hopped aboard the East India Company trade vessel Dartmouth and poured 342 chests of tea (worth close to $2,000,000 in today’s currency) of British tea into the sea at Boston Harbour. This act – now known as the ‘Boston Tea Party’, remains important in patriotic American folklore.  

Intolerable Acts (1774)  

Rather than attempting to appease the rebels, the Boston Tea Party was met with the passing of the Intolerable Acts in 1774 by the British Crown. These punitive measures included the forced closure of Boston port and an order of compensation to the East India Company for damaged property. Town meetings were now also banned, and the authority of the royal governor was increased. The British lost further support and patriots formed the First Continental Congress in the same year, a body where men from all the colonies were formally represented. In Britain, 4 opinion was divided as the Whigs favoured reform while North’s Tories wanted to demonstrate the power of the British Parliament. It would be the Tories who got their way. In the meantime, the First Continental Congress raised a militia, and in April 1775 the first shots of the war were fired as British troops clashed with militia men at the twin battles of Lexington and Concord. British reinforcements landed in Massachusetts and defeated the rebels at Bunker Hill in June – the first major battle of the American War of Independence. Shortly after, the British withdrew into Boston – where they were besieged by an army commanded by the newly appointed General, and future president, George Washington.  

King George III’s Speech to Parliament (1775)  

On 26 October 1775 George III, King of Great Britain, stood up in front of his Parliament and declared the American colonies to be in a state of rebellion. Here, for the first time, the use of force was authorized against the rebels. The King’s speech was long but certain phrases made it clear that a major war against his own subjects was about to commence: “It is now become the part of wisdom, and (in its effects) of clemency, to put a speedy end to these disorders by the most decisive exertions. For this purpose, I have increased my naval establishment, and greatly augmented my land forces, but in such a manner as may be the least burthensome to my kingdoms.” After such a speech, the Whig position was silenced and a full-scale war was inevitable. From it the United States of America would emerge, and the course of history radically changed. 

Q23. Discuss the political, social and economic causes of the French Revolution. 

The French Revolution was a period of radical political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended with the formation of the French Consulate in November 1799. 

1. Political Cause: 

During the eighteen the Century France was the centre of autocratic monarchy. The French Monarchs had unlimited power and they declared themselves as the “Representative of God”. 

Louis XIV was the exponent of this view. The French Monarchs engaged themselves in luxurious and extravagance at the royal court of Versailles. They enjoyed unlimited power. By the Letter de Catchet, they arrested any person at any time and imprisoned them. They paid no attention towards their subjects. 

Louis XIV (1643-1715) of the Bourbon Dynasty was a powerful monarch. He was an efficient, hard-working and confident ruler. He participated in many wars. Louis XIV’s concept of unlimited royal power is revealed by his famous remarks, “I am the State”. 

Louis XV (1715-1774) succeeded Louix XIV He was a ‘butterfly monarch’. His defective foreign policy weakened the economic condition of France. Louis XV fought the Seven Years War against England which brought nothing for France. France became bankrupt due to over expenditure in wars and luxury. He realised it later on. Before his death he cried-‘After me the Deluge’. 

After Louis XV, Louis XVI (1774-1793) ascended the throne of France. During that period, the economic condition of France became weak. Louis XVI was an innocent and simple man. But he was influenced by his queen Marie Antoinette who always interfered in the state affairs. 

Out of frustration he uttered-“Oh! What a burden of mine and they have taught me nothing.” Marie Antoinette was the daughter of Marie Theresa, the Austrian Empress. She always felt proud as she was the daughter of Austrain Empress. She always enjoyed luxurious and extravagant life. She sowed seed of the French Revolution. Thus, the autrocratic monarchy, defective administration, extravagant expenditure formed the political cause of the French Revolution. 

2. Social Cause: 

The Social condition of France during the eighteenth century was very miserable. The then French Society was divided into three classes— the Clergy, Nobles and Common People. 

The Clergy belonged to the First Estate. The Clergy was sub­divided into two groups i.e. the higher clergy and the lower clergy. The higher clergy occupied the top position in the society. They managed the churches, monasteries and educational institutions of France. They did not pay any tax to the monarch. 

They exploited the common people in various ways. The higher clergy lived in the midst of scandalous luxury and extravagance. The common people had a strong hatred towards the higher clergy. On the other hand, the lower clergy served the people in true sense of the term and they lived a very miserable life. 

The Nobility was regarded as the Second Estate in the French Society. They also did not pay any tax to the king. The Nobility was also sub divided into two groups-the Court nobles and the provincial nobles. The court nobles lived in pomp and luxury. They did not pay any heed towards the problems of the common people of their areas. 

On the other hand, the provincial nobles paid their attention towards the problems of the people. But they did not enjoy the same privileges as the Court nobles enjoyed. The Third Estate formed a heterogenous class. The farmers, cobblers, sweepers and other lower classes belonged to this class. The condition of the farmers was very miserable. 

They paid the taxes like Taille, Tithe and Gable. Inspite of this, the clergies and the nobles employed them in their fields in curve. The Bourgeoisie formed the top most group of the Third Estate. The doctors, lawyers, teachers, businessmen, writers and philosophers belonged to this class. They had the wealth and social status. But the French Monarch, influenced by the clergies and nobles, ranked them as the Third Estate. 

So they influenced the people for revolution. They aroused the common people about their rights. Thus, the common people became rebellious. The lower Clergies and the provincial nobles also joined their hands with the common people along with the bourgeoisie. So the French Revolution is also known as the ‘Bourgeoisie Revolution’. 

3. Economic Cause: 

The economic condition of France formed another cause for the outbreak of the French Revolution. The economic condition of France became poor due to the foreign wars of Louis XIV, the seven years War of Louis XV and other expensive wars. During the reign period of Louis XVI, the royal treasury became empty as extravagant expenses of his queen Marie Antoinette. 

To get rid of this condition. Louis XVI appointed Turgot as his Finance Minister in 1774. Turgot tried to minimise the expenditure of the royal court. He also advised the king to impose taxes on every classes of the society. But due to the interference of Queen Marie Antoinette, Louis XVI dismissed Turgot. 

Then Necker was appointed as the Finance Minister in 1776. He published a report on the income and expenditure of the State in order to arouse the people. But he was also dismissed by the king. 

The next person who was appointed by the King as the Finance Minister of France in 1783 was Callone. He adapted the policy of borrowing in order to meet the expenditure of the royal court. But due to this policy, the national debt of France increased from 300,000,000 to 600,000,000 Franks only in three years. 

Then Callone proposed to impose taxes on all the classes. But he was dismissed by the king. In this situation, the king at last summoned the States General. The economic instability formed one of the most important causes of the French Revolution. 

 
Q24. The Industrial Revolution brought about great changes in the social and economic life of Europe. Explain. 

Introduction: 

• The Industrial Revolution, which took place from the 18^th to 19^th centuries, was a period during which predominantly agrarian, rural societies in Europe and America became industrial and urban. 
• Industrialization marked a shift to powered, special-purpose machinery, factories and mass production. The iron and textile industries became the mainstay of the industrial revolution. From cooking appliances to ships, all had components of iron and steel. The process went into hyperdrive with the advent of steam engines and ships. 

Technological changes that took place during the industrial revolution 

During the industrial revolution, acceleration in the processes of technological innovation brought about an array of new tools and machines. 

The following are key technological changes that took place during the industrial revolution: 

• Textiles: During the period, the organization of cotton production shifted from a small-scale cottage industry, in which rural families performed spinning and weaving tasks in their homes, to a large, mechanized, factory-based industry. 
   
• The boom in productivity began with a few technical devices, including the spinning jenny, spinning mule, and power loom. 
• Agriculture: Several factors came together in 18^th-century Europe to bring about a substantial increase in agricultural productivity. 
   

• These included new types of equipment, such as the seed drill developed by Jethro Tull around 1701. Progress was also made in crop rotation and land use, soil health, development of new crop varieties, and animal husbandry. 
• The result was a sustained increase in yields, capable of feeding a rapidly growing population with improved nutrition. 

• Energy: The mining and distribution of coal set in motion some of the dynamics that led to Britain’s industrialization. The coal-fired steam engine was in many respects the decisive technology of the Industrial Revolution. 
• Transportation: Concurrent with the increased output of agricultural produce and manufactured goods arose the need for more efficient means of delivering these products to market. 
   
• Steam engines and railways became important features of the industrial revolution during the 19^th century. 

Social and economic changes that took place during the industrial revolution: 

A lot of socio-economic change took place during the Industrial Revolution. It changed the character and culture of people in the whole world. 

• Population Explosion: Advancement in technology and better agricultural production led to better medical facilities and greater employment which led to population explosion. 
• Development of Banking and Finance System: the middle class began opening up new factories for which they required financing and therefore, the banking and finance system began developing. 
• Status of Women: The Industrial Revolution marked a dramatic change for women as many of them entered the workforce for the first time. Women had to compete with men for jobs. Female factory workers often made only one-third as much as men. 

• Rising Middle Class: The middle-class men started owning factories, sent their male children to school and rose up in society due to an increase in wealth. 
• Urbanization: People started moving to urban areas in search of better jobs in factories due to which these areas became highly populous with poor housing facilities. 
• The exploitation of resources: industrial Revolution made the production of goods easy and ready in much less time. Therefore, more and more goods began to be produced which led to the exploitation of resources. 

Conclusion: 

The Industrial Revolution was a revolutionary experience. It also increased material wealth, extended life, and was a powerful force for social change. And therefore, there was more to the Industrial Revolution than a bunch of machines, it was not only a technological revolution but a social-economic revolution that changed the way people lived afterwards.