Principles of Political Science   

Q & A 

By @Harshit Sharma

Q1 What do you mean by liberty? 

The word “Liberty” stands derived from the Latin word ‘Liber” which means ‘free’. In this sense liberty means freedom from restraints and the freedom to act as one likes. 

• the quality or state of being free. 
• the power to do as one pleases. 
• freedom from physical restraint. 
• freedom from arbitrary or despotic control. 

• the positive enjoyment of various social, political, or economic rights and privileges. 
• the power of choice. 

Q2. What is social Justice? 

Social justice refers to a fair and equitable division of resources, opportunities, and privileges in society. Originally a religious concept, it has come to be conceptualized more loosely as the just organization of social institutions that deliver access to economic benefits. It is sometimes referred to as “distributive justice.” 

• Social justice refers to the fair division of resources, opportunities, and privileges in society. 

• It emphasizes fairness in how society divides its social resources. 
• One of the most famous examinations of social justice is John Rawls’ A Theory of Justice (1971). 
• Gender inequality, racism, and LGBTQ+ discrimination are frequent subjects of social justice advocacy. 

Q3. What is Feminism? 

Feminism is defined as the belief in the social, political, and economic equality of the sexes. The goal of feminism is to challenge the systemic inequalities women face on a daily basis. 

Q4. What is Natural Rights? 

Natural rights are those that are not dependent on the laws or customs of any particular culture or government, and so are universal, fundamental and inalienable (they cannot be repealed by human laws) 

Examples are :- right to life, right to liberty, right to own property, right to freedom of speech, right to have a family etc. 

Q5. Define Citizenship. 

A legal status and relation between an individual and a state that entails specific legal rights and duties. Citizenship is generally used as a synonym for nationality. 

Q6. What do you mean by equality? 

The term ‘equality’ refers to the state of being equal. It’s one of the principles of a democratic society, thus the battle for various sorts of equality, such as racial equality, gender equality, or equality of opportunity between rich and poor people, is typically linked to progress toward that ideal of true equality for all. 

Q7. Explain Justice. 

Justice is a situation of Righteousness or Reasonableness. It is not only a legal term but also moral ( values according to society) and ethical. 

According to Salmond, “ Justice means to provide everyone his share “. 

According to J.S Mill, “ Justice is name of certain classes of moral values, which concerns the essentials of human well-being more clearly and are, therefore, a more absolute obligation that any other rule for guidance of life” 

Q8. Write two features of Feminism? 

1. Elimination of gender based social, cultural and religious tradition :- The emergence and continued existence of several social, cultural and religious practices has led to the transformation of the society of two equal human beings into two unequal social classes with male domination and female subordination and subjugation. Hence, gender based social cultural and religious tradition should be Eliminated. 
2. Women Participation in all social life :- Despite the fact that women constitute almost one half each society, their role, resources, status and participation in all areas of social life continues to be much below their legitimate due. Male domination of social, economic, political life of the society has been a hard reality of the existing social order. 

Q9. Write two demerits of Democracy. 

1. Democracy is too slow for today’s problems, i.e. complex and lengthy decision making process. 
2. Unstable governments, i.e. no-confidence motion, mid-term elections etc. 

Q10. What is the Right. 

Rights are the common claims of the people which every cultured society recognizes as essential claims for their development and which are therefore enforced by the state. 

According to Laski, “Rights are those conditions of social life without which no man can seek in general to be himself at his best.” 

T.H Green explained that , “Rights are powers necessary for the fulfillment of man’s vocation as a moral being”. 

Beni Prasad stated that, “ Rights are nothing more or less than those social conditions which are necessary or favorable to the development of personality.” 

Q11. Explain Proportional Representation. 

proportional representation is an electoral system in which seats are allocated to parties based on vote share.  

Examples :- Finland, Sweden, Israel, South Africa etc. 

Q12. Explain Democracy. 

Democracy is a form of government in which the people have the authority to deliberate and decide legislation, or to choose governing officials to do so. 

According to Abraham Lincoln, “Democracy is a government of the people, by the people and for the people”. 

According to Pro. Seeley, “ Democracy is a government in which everyone has a share”. 

Q13. Name two Individualist thinker. 

Adam Smith & Jeremy Bentham. 

Q14. Briefly discuss different theories of Rights. 

Rights are the common claims of the people which every cultured society recognizes as essential claims for their development and which are therefore enforced by the state. 

4 main theories of Rights are:- 

1. Theory of Natural Rights  

John Locke, the most political influential philosopher of the modern period, argued that people have rights – such as right to life, liberty and property, that have a foundation independent of the laws of any particular society. 

Locke claimed that men are naturally free and equal. 

As part of the justification for understanding legitimate political government as result of social contract. Here people in the state of nature conditionally transfer some of their rights to the government in order to better ensure the state, comfortable enjoyment of their lives, liberty and property. 

2. Legal Theory of Rights :- 

Legal rights are those rights which are accepted and enforced by the state. Any defilement of any legal right is punished by the law. Law courts of the state enforce legal rights. These rights can be enforced against individual and also against the government. This way legal rights are different from moral rights. Legal rights are available to all the citizens. All citizens follow legal rights without any discrimination. They can go to the courts for getting their legal rights to be enforced. 

3.  Historical Theory of Rights:- 

Rights are as the product of Historical evolution. The exponents of the historical theory of rights Edmund Burke and Habermas say that rights are not created by the state, but are the products of historical evolution. 

While in modern states, rights are recognized and upheld by law, in ancient times rights were based on customs and usages. 

All rights are not the product of history. Only some rights are the result of the historical evolution. Certain rights are created by the law of the state and they do not have history as source of their origin. 

The state has got rid of inequality in the Indian caste system, which was the product of history and introduced equality through written constitution of law. 

4. Theory of Moral Rights 

Moral rights are based on human consciousness. They are supported by the moral force of human mind. These are based on human sense of goodness and justice. They are not assisted by force of law.  

Sense of goodness and public opinion are the sanctions behind moral rights. If any person disrupts any moral rights, no legal action can taken against him. The state does not enforce these rights. Moral rights include rules of good conduct, courtesy and of moral behaviour. These stands for moral perfection of the people. 

Q15. Discuss merits and demerits of democracy. 

Democracy is a political structure in which people directly exercise power, or elect members from among themselves to represent the people, such as a parliament. It is also called the majority rule and here can’t inherit the power. People are choosing their representatives. Representatives participate in an election and the voters elect their member. Democracy is a form of government in which: 

• Rulers elected by the people take all the major decisions 
• Elections offer a choice and fair opportunity to the people to change the current rulers 
• This choice and opportunity is available to all the people on an equal basis 
• The exercise of this choice leads to a government limited by basic rules of the constitution and citizens’ rights 

Merits of democracy 

• A democratic government is a more responsible form of government, is a stronger form of government. 
• The standard of making decisions is improved by democracy. 
• The integrity of people is strengthened by democracy. 

• The wealthy and educated have the same standing as the poor and less educated. 
• Democracy helps us to fix our own mistakes. 

Demerits of democracy 

• Leaders keep changing in a democracy leading to instability. 
• Democracy is all about political competition and power play, leaving no scope for morality. 

• Many people have to be consulted in a democracy that leads to delays 
• Elected leaders do not know the best interest of the people, resulting in bad decisions. 
• Democracy leads to corruption since it is based on electoral competition 
• Ordinary people don’t know what is good for them; they should not decide anything. 

Q16. Write an essay on the concept and types of equality. 

Equality does not mean absolute equality: 

In common usage equality is taken to mean full equality of treatment and reward for all. It is demanded as natural equality. It is said that all men are born natural and free. However, despite a strong emotional appeal to our hearts, the notion of natural and absolute equality of all cannot be fully accepted and realised. Men are neither equal in respect of their physical features nor in respect of their mental abilities. Some are stronger others weaker and some are more intelligent and capable than others. 

Their capacities and abilities are different. As such equality of treatment and rewards cannot be ensured. Rewards must depend upon the actual abilities and work of various people. Hence equality does not mean absolute and total equality. 

Equality really means equal opportunities for development. In fact, when we talk of equality of all men we really mean general and fair equality and not absolute equality. We really talk of a fair distribution of opportunities reward and not equal reward for all. 

Equality means absence of all unnatural and unjust inequalities 

In society there are present two types of inequalities: 

(1) Natural inequalities, and 

(2) Man-made unnatural inequalities. 

The former means natural differences among human beings. These have to be accepted by all. The man-made inequalities are those which are there because of some social conditions and discriminations. These are of the nature of socioeconomic inequalities resulting from the operation of social system. The discriminations practiced and inequalities maintained in the name of caste, colour, creed, religion, sex, place of birth and the like are all unnatural man- made inequalities. Equality means end of all such inequalities and discriminations. 

Equality: Definitions 

“The Right to Equality proper is a right of equal satisfaction of basic human needs, including the need to develop and use capacities which are specifically human.” -D.D Raphall 

“Equality means that no man shall be so placed in society that he can over-reach his neighbour to the extent which constitutes a denial of latter’s citizenship.” -Laski 

“Equality means equal rights for all the people and the abolition of all special rights and privileges”. -Barker 

Thus, negatively equality implies abolition of all special privileges and facilities which may be available to some classes or some persons in society. It also stands for the abolition of all man-made inequalities and discriminations. Positively Equality stands for equal rights, equitable distribution of resources , equal opportunities for development and relative equality with due recognition of merit, abilities and capacities of various persons. 

III. Types of Equality: 

1. Natural Equality: 

Despite the fact that men differ in respect of their physical features, psychological traits, mental abilities and capacities, all humans are to be treated as equal humans. All are to be considered worthy of enjoying all human rights and freedoms. 

2. Social Equality: 

It stands for equal rights and opportunities for development for all classes of people without any discrimination. 

Specifically, it stands for: 

(i) Absence of special privileges for any class or caste or religions group or an ethnic group; 

(ii) Prohibition of discrimination against any one on the basis of caste, colour, creed, religion, sex and place of birth; 

(iii) Free access to public places for all the people, i.e. no social segregation; and 

(iv) Equality of opportunity for all people. It however accepts the concept of protective discrimination in favour of all weaker sections of society. 

A modern central theme of social equality is to end gender inequality, to ensure equal status and opportunities to the women and to ensure equal rights of male and female children to live and develop. 

3. Civil Equality: 

It stands for the grant of equal rights and freedoms to all the people and social groups. All the people are to be treated equal before Law. 

4. Political Equality: 

It stands for equal opportunities for participation of all in the political process. This involves the concept of grant of equal political rights for all the citizens with some uniform qualifications for everyone. 

5. Economic Equality: 

Economic equality does not mean equal treatment or equal reward or equal wages for all. It stands for fair and adequate opportunities to all for work and for earning of their livelihoods. It also means that primary needs of all should be met before the special needs of few are satisfied. The gap between rich and poor should be minimum. There should be equitable distribution of wealth and resources in the society. 

6. Legal Equality: 

Finally, Legal Equality stands for equality before law, equal subjection of all to the same legal code and equal opportunity for all to secure legal protection of their rights and freedom. There should rule of law and laws must be equally binding foe all. In every society equality must be ensured in all these forms. 

Q17. Discuss the salient features of Individualism. 

• Individualism, Political and social philosophy that emphasizes individual freedom. Modern individualism emerged in Britain with the ideas of Adam Smith and Jeremy Bentham, and the concept was described by Alexis de Tocqueville as fundamental to the American temper.  
• Individualism encompasses a value system, a theory of human nature, and a belief in certain political, economic, social, and religious arrangements.  
• Individualists promote the exercise of one’s goals and desires and so value independence and self-reliance and advocate that interests of the individual should achieve precedence over the state or social group.  
• No any other institutions larger than the individual. 

• Individualism involves “the rights of the individual to freedom and self-realisation.” 
• The basic idea behind individualism is that the individual persons interest is very important thing, the thing that the society should be most concerned with protecting. 
• It is part of many political and philosophical movements, such as liberalism, anarchism, libertarianism, and humanism. 
• Although it has often been linked to the classical liberal tradition, and the idea such as limited government and the free market, it has also been used to justify state intervention and has, at times, been embraced by socialists. 
• Social contract theory can, for instance, be seen as a form of political individualism. Government is seen to arise out of the consent of individual citizens, and its role is limited to the protection of their rights. 
• This anti-statist individualist tradition has also been closely linked to the defence of market capitalism. 

Features:- 

• Moral worth of Individual. 
• Every person is unique and self-reliant. 
• Government should out of your individual affairs. 

• The pursuit of Individual rather than collective interests. 
• Personal weel-being is more important than the group’s well-being. 
• Identity being a member of a specific group does not define who are you. 

Q18. Discuss the relationship between liberty and equality. 

Liberty and Equality are closely related to each other. There is no value of liberty in the absence of equality. They are the same conditions viewed from different angles. They are the two sides of the same coin. Though there is a close relationship between liberty and equality, yet there are some political thinkers who do not find any relationship between liberty and equality. For example, Lord Acton and De Tocqueville who were the ardent advocates of liberty, found no relationship between the two conditions. 

To them liberty and equality were antagonistic and antithetical to each other. Lord Acton maintains that “The passion for equality made vain the hope for liberty”. Such political thinkers maintain that where there is liberty, there is no equality and vice versa. These political thinkers are of the opinion that people were conferred inequality by nature. We find inequality in nature also. 

In some parts there are rivers while in others there are mountains and in still other parts there are plains and fields. No two persons are similar in their ability and capacity. And so there cannot be equality in society. 

The views of Lord Acton and De Tocqueville are not accepted by modern political thinkers. Professor H.J. Laski has very aptly remarked in this connection: “To persons so ardent for liberty as Tocqueville and Lord Acton, liberty and equality, are antithetic things. It is a drastic conclusion. But it turns, in the case of both men, upon a misunderstanding of what equality implies”. 

These days, it is generally believed that liberty and equality should go together. If an individual is given unrestrained liberty to do whatever he likes, he will cause harm to others. There will be chaos in society if individuals are given unrestrained liberty. 

In the nineteenth century, the Individualists wrongly interpreted the term ‘Liberty’. They did not attach any importance to economic equality and laid stress on Laissez Faire to be adopted by the government. Adam Smith was the ardent advocate of this view. 

The Individualists maintained that there should be a free competition between the capitalists and labour leaders. They did not want the government to interfere in the economic matters. Formula of Demand and Supply should be adopted. 

All the economic difficulties will be removed by this formula. If there will be excess of commodities and easy availability of labour, prices will come down. If there is scarcity, prices will rise higher and higher. This formula was implemented in England and in many other countries of Europe and it resulted in dangerous consequences. 

The government lost its control over the capitalists. The capitalists exploited the opportunity to the full. They exploited the labour to the full. As a result of it, the rich grew richer and poor became poorer. The labour class suffered tragically. 

As a result of it, an intense reaction took place against Individualism. This reaction led to the dawn of Socialism. Socialism condemned and refuted the principles of Individualism. Liberty has no significance in the absence of economic equality. Professor Laski has very aptly remarked, “Where here are rich and poor, educated and uneducated, we always find a relation of master and servant”. 

C.E.M. Joad has also asserted, “The doctrine of liberty, of “which the importance cannot be over-estimated in politics, worked disastrously when applied in the field of economics”. Hobbes has also asserted, “What good is freedom to a starving man? He cannot eat freedom or drink it”. 

Thus, it is quite clear that economic equality is essential for the existence of political freedom. Otherwise it will be capitalist Democracy in which the labourers will have the right to vote but they will not be able to get their purposes served. Therefore, Liberty in the real sense of word is possible only in Socialistic democracy in which equality and liberty go together. 

Similarly, it is also true that in the absence of political liberty, equality cannot be established. Mr. Elton True-blood has very aptly remarked in this connection. “The paradox is that equality and freedom, which began by being ideas in conflict and tension, turn out open analysis to be necessary to each other. The truth is that it is impossible to make a reasonable statement of the meaning of equality except in terms of freedom. Men are equal only because all men are intrinsically free, as nothing else in all creation is free”. 

“Equality, in all its forms, must always be,” says Barker, “subject and instrumental to the free development of capacity, but if it be pressed to the length of uniformity and if uniformity be made to thwart the free development of capacity, the subject becomes the master and the world is turned topsy-turvy”. 

R.H. Tawney has rightly remarked, “A large measure of equality, so far from being inimical to liberty, is essential to it”. Pollard also writes, “There is only one solution of the problem of liberty. It lies in equality”. Thus, Liberty and Equality are complementary to each other. They are not opposed to each other. They go together. 

Liberty and Equality “are to be reconciled by remembering that both (liberty and equality) are subordinate means to the end of realising the potentialities of individual personality on the widest possible scale. The development of a rich variety of potentialities requires a large measure of liberty and forbids all attempts to impose a dead level of social and economic equality”. 

“There is an intimate connection between the two “because all individual liberties are related to the basic equality of all men and because historically the aspiration for liberty became in practice and destruction of privilege or inequality”. 

Both are complementary to each other. “Liberty thus implies equality,” says Herbert A. Dean, “liberty and equality are not in conflict nor even separate but are different facts of the same ideal … indeed since they are identical, there can be no problem how or to what extent they are or can be related; this surely the nearest, if not the most satisfactory solution ever devised for a perennial problem in political philosophy”. 

Q19. What are the virtue of a good citizen ? Describe. 

The concept of citizenship was born in the city-states of Ancient Greece; specifically, in Athens. Greek education at the time was designed to instruct citizens in the values, intellectual frameworks, and habits-of-mind required to be free men. That is, to actively participate in the political system that shaped their lives and guaranteed their freedoms. 

Today, being a citizen means that you’re part of a group, and that you have legal and political rights within that group. It brings with it both privileges and obligations. I would argue that we each have a duty, or an obligation, to be good citizens. After all, a nation is only as healthy as its individual citizens. 

Virtue of good citizen :- 

1. A Good Citizen is Patriotic. 

Patriotism is having and showing devotion for your country. It means having an attachment to certain national cultural values and showing critical loyalty to your nation. Some ways to show patriotism include the following: 

• Brush up on your country’s history. 
• Read up on social studies. 
• Obey the rule of law. 
• Pay your taxes. 
• Learn the national anthem. 

• Fly your country’s flag. 
• Don’t litter or engage in acts of vandalism that deface your environment. 
• Travel around your country and talk to your fellow citizens. 
• Cheer for your country’s team in sports events. 

At the same time, keep in mind that patriotism should not be confused with nationalism. Nationalism is thinking of your nation as being superior to others, and worthy of dominance. Patriots are proud of their country, but they understand that other people are also rightly proud of theirs. 

2. Model the Personal Qualities of Good Citizens. 

The personal qualities of a good citizen include the following: 

• Honesty – tell the truth. 
• Integrity – be morally upright. 
• Responsibility – be accountable for yourself and your actions. 

• Respectfulness – treat others how you want to be treated. 
• Compassion – show fellowship with your compatriots who are down on their luck by volunteering and/or making donations to charities. 
• Kindness – be friendly. 
• Tolerance – be tolerant of other races and religions. 
• Courtesy – be considerate of others. 

• Self-Discipline – have self-control and cultivate the ability to follow through on what you say you’re going to do. 
• Moral Courage – stand up for what you consider to be wrong and defend those who cannot defend themselves. 
• Love of Justice – be fair and ask that others be so as well. 

3. Be a Productive Member of Society. 

A good citizen contributes to their nation by being productive. They’re productive employees, business owners, artists, public servants, caregivers, and so on. Good citizens share their skills, talents, and abilities with others. They make a positive contribution to their nation. 

4. Be Active In Your Community. 

A good citizen is active in their community. They participate in the social life of their city or town, and they look for ways to make their communities a better place to live. That is, if they see a problem in their community they look for ways to solve it. 

Here are some ways to be active in your community: 

• Shop locally. 
• Attend community events – keep your eyes open for events that are happening in your area such as festivals, community theatre, a gallery opening, and so on. 
• Join a local club that’s devoted to an activity that interests you, such as running, cycling etc. 

Here are some ways to better your community: 

• Participate in a community-driven cleanup project. 
• Help plant a community garden. 
• Organize a campaign to raise money for new playground equipment. 
• Help out your neighbors. 

5. Keep Yourself Well-Informed. 

Read to educate yourself about the important issues facing your nation. In 1761, John Adams implied that one of the reasons to emphasize literacy is that it makes people better citizens.  

6. Be Vigilant. 

A country depends on a well-informed and civic minded population to safeguard the people’s individual freedoms and political rights. A good citizen remains vigilant in order to ascertain that the government is doing all of the following: 

• Meeting its obligations to its citizens; 
• Acting appropriately within its sphere and jurisdiction; and 
• Adhering to the limits of state action. 

To do this, a citizen must have the basic skills necessary to be able to assess arguments logically and critically. 

In addition, if a citizen believes that the government is overstepping its bounds or failing in its duties, the citizen must speak up. In the words of Thomas Jefferson: 

“All tyranny needs to gain a foothold is for people of good conscience to remain silent.” 

7. Participate in Your Nation’s Political Life. 

If you want to be a good citizen, you should be politically active. There are many ways to this. Here are some ideas: 

• Identify an issue you care about and pursue it. 
• Attend rallies and events. 

• Go to city council meetings. 
• Join a political organization. 
• Volunteer for a political campaign. 
• Vote! Do your part to elect capable, civic minded leaders. 
• Run for political office. 

8. Be a Mentor. 

Today’s kids are tomorrow’s citizens. Help shape the citizens of the future by mentoring kids. Some ideas on ways you can mentor kids are the following: 

• Talk to your own kids about civics and teach them to be good citizens. 
• Join a school-based mentoring program and tutor kids who aren’t doing well academically. 
• Get involved in an organization such as Big Brothers Big Sisters. 

9. Be Well-Rounded. 

 A good citizen has to be productive. That is, they need to have the knowledge necessary to produce in today’s world — technical skills, legal skills, medical skills, and so on. However, a good citizen should also be well-rounded. 

A well-rounded person is better at creative problem solving and innovation than a person who is not well-rounded. In addition, they can make contributions not only to a country’s GDP, but also to the cultural wealth of their nation. 

10. Order Your Corner Of the World 

Your home is a microcosm of your country. If you want to live in a clean, healthy, prosperous, happy nation, start by creating these circumstances at home. 

The Chinese philosopher Confucius once said the following: “To put the world in order, we must first put the nation in order; to put the nation in order, we must first put the family in order; to put the family in order; we must first cultivate our personal life; we must first set our hearts right.” 

Do things like the following: 

• Keep a clean and organized home environment. 
• Eat healthy meals. 
• Keep to a budget and don’t go into debt. 

• Pay your bills on time. 
• Don’t waste water or electricity. 
• Recycle. 
• Create a list of simple rules for your family to follow. 
• Set personal development goals and strive to achieve them. 

Q20. Write a short note on Feminism.

Feminism is a social and political movement that advocates for the rights of women on the grounds of equality of sexes. It does not deny the biological differences between the sexes but demands equality in opportunities. It covers everything from social and political to economic arenas. In fact, feminist campaigns have been a crucial part of history in women empowerment. The feminist campaigns of the twentieth century made the right to vote, public property, work and education possible. Thus, an essay on feminism will discuss its importance and impact. 

Importance of Feminism 

Feminism is not just important for women but for every sex, gender, caste, creed and more. It empowers the people and society as a whole. A very common misconception is that only women can be feminists. 

It is absolutely wrong but feminism does not just benefit women. It strives for equality of the sexes, not the superiority of women. Feminism takes the gender roles which have been around for many years and tries to deconstruct them. 

This allows people to live freely and empower lives without getting tied down by traditional restrictions. In other words, it benefits women as well as men. For instance, while it advocates that women must be free to earn it also advocates that why should men be the sole breadwinner of the family? It tries to give freedom to all. 

Most importantly, it is essential for young people to get involved in the feminist movement. This way, we can achieve faster results. It is no less than a dream to live in a world full of equality. 

Thus, we must all look at our own cultures and communities for making this dream a reality. We have not yet reached the result but we are on the journey, so we must continue on this mission to achieve successful results. 

Impact of Feminism 

Feminism has had a life-changing impact on everyone, especially women. If we look at history, we see that it is what gave women the right to vote. It was no small feat but was achieved successfully by women. 

Further, if we look at modern feminism, we see how feminism involves in life-altering campaigns. For instance, campaigns that support the abortion of unwanted pregnancy and reproductive rights allow women to have freedom of choice. 

Moreover, feminism constantly questions patriarchy and strives to renounce gender roles. It allows men to be whoever they wish to be without getting judged. It is not taboo for men to cry anymore because they must be allowed to express themselves freely. 

Similarly, it also helps the LGBTQ community greatly as it advocates for their right too. Feminism gives a place for everyone and it is best to practice intersectional feminism to understand everyone’s struggle. 

Conclusion of the Essay on Feminism :- 

The key message of feminism must be to highlight the choice in bringing personal meaning to feminism. It is to recognize other’s right for doing the same thing. The sad part is that despite feminism being a strong movement, there are still parts of the world where inequality and exploitation of women take places. Thus, we must all try to practice intersectional feminism. 

Q21. What is Justice. Discuss its various types.

Justice is the most important and most discussed objective of the State, and Society. It is the basis of orderly human living. Justice demands the regulation of selfish actions of people for securing a fair distribution, equal treatment of equals, and proportionate and just rewards for all. It stands for harmony between individual interests and the interests of society. 

Justice is of central importance to political theory. In defending or opposing laws, policies, decisions and actions of government, appeals are made in the name of justice. Persons involved in every agitation for securing their interests always raise the slogan: “We want Justice”. All civil rights movements are essentially movements for justice. 

Justice stands for rule of law, absence of arbitrariness and a system of equal rights, freedoms and opportunities for all in society. In fact, Justice stands recognized as the first virtue or ideal or objective to be secured. In its Preamble, the Constitution of India gives first priority to the securing of social, economic and political justice for all its people. 

Justice: Meaning & Definition: 

Justice is a complex concept and touches almost every aspect of human life. The word Justice has been derived from the Latin word Jungere meaning ‘to bind or to tie together’. The word ‘Jus’ also means ‘Tie’ or ‘Bond’. In this way Justice can be defined as a system in which men are tied or joined in a close relationship. Justice seeks to harmonise different values and to organise upon it all human relations. As such, Justice means bonding or joining or organising people together into a right or fair order of relationships. 

definitions of Justice: 

“Justice means to distribute the due share to everybody.” –Salmond 

“Justice protects the rights of the individual as well as the order of society.” –Dr. Raphael 

“Justice consists in a system of understandings and a procedure through which each is accorded what is agreed upon as fair.”-C.E. Merriam 

In other words, Justice means securing and protecting of rights of all in a fair way. It stands for harmony among all the people, orderly living and securing of rights of all in a just and fair way. 

Features of Justice: 

1. Justice is related to mutual relationships of persons living in society. 

2. Justice is based on values and traditions of society. 

3. Justice is related to all aspects of human behaviour in society. Laws are made and courts are set up with this aim in view. 

4. Aim of Justice is to provide equal rights, opportunities and facilities to all in a fair way. 

5. The function of Justice is to harmonise individual interests with the interests of society. 

6. Justices is a primary value and it is inseparably related to other values like Liberty, Equality and Property. 

7. Justice is the principle of balancing or reconciling human relations in society in such a way as enables each one to get his due rights, towards and punishments. 

8. Justice has several dimensions: Social Justice, Economic Justice, Political Justice and Legal Justice. 

Types of Justice: 

1. Social Justice: 

In contemporary times a large number of scholars use prefer to describe the concept of Justice as Social Justice. Social Justice is taken to mean that all the people in a society are to be equal and there is be no discrimination on the basis of religion, caste, creed, colour, sex or status. 

However, various scholars explain the concept of Social Justice in different ways. Some hold that social justice is to allot to each individual his or her due share in the social sphere. According to some others, distribution of social facilities and rights on the basis of law and justice constitutes social justice. 

What is Social Justice? 

“Social justice is another name for equal social rights.” “Social Justice aims to provide equal opportunities to every individual to develop his inherent qualities.”-Barker 

“By social justice we mean ending all kinds of social inequalities and then to provide equal opportunities to everyone.”-C.JP.B. Gajendragadkar 

Social democrats and modern liberal thinkers define social justice as the attempt to reconstruct the social order in accordance with moral principles. Attempts are to be continuously made to rectify social injustice. It also stands for a morally just and defensible system of distribution of reward and obligations in society without any discrimination or injustice against any person or class of persons. 

In the Indian Constitution several provisions have been provided with a view to secure social economic and political justice. Untouchability has been constitutionally abolished. Every citizen has been granted an equal right of access to any public place, place of worship and use of places of entertainment. 

The state cannot discriminate between citizens on the basis of birth, caste, colour, creed, sex, faith or title or status or any of these. Untouchability and apartheid are against the spirit of social justice. Absence of privileged classes in society is an essential attribute of social justice. 

2. Economic Justice: 

Economic Justice is indeed closely related to social justice because economic system is always an integral part of the social system. Economic rights and opportunities available to an individual are always a part of the entire social system. 

Economic justice demands that all citizens should have adequate opportunities to earn their livelihood and get fair wages as can enable they to satisfy their basic needs and help them to develop further. The state should provide them economic security during illness, old age and in the event of a disability. 

No person or group or class should be in a position to exploit others, nor get exploited. There should be fair and equitable distribution of wealth and resources among all the people. The gap between the rich and the poor should not be glaring. The fruits of prosperity must reach all the people. 

There are present several different views regarding the meaning of economic justice. The liberals consider open competition as just and they support private property. On the other hand, the socialists seek to establish complete control of society upon the entire economic system. 

They oppose private property. Whatever be the ideology or the system, one thing is clear and that is that all citizens must be provided with basic necessities of life. All citizens must have their basic needs of life fulfilled (Food, clothing, shelter, education, health and so on). 

3. Political Justice: 

Political justice means giving equal political rights and opportunities to all citizens to take part in the administration of the country. Citizens should have the right to vote without any discrimination on the basis of religion, colour, caste, creed, sex, birth or status. Every citizen should have an equal right to vote and to contest elections. 

4. Legal Justice

Legal justice has two dimensions-the formulation of just laws and then to do justice according to the laws. While making laws, the will of the rulers is not to be imposed upon the ruled. Laws should be based on public opinion and public needs. Social values, morality, conventions, the idea of just and unjust must be always kept in view. 

When the laws do not meet the social values and rules of morality, citizens neither really accept nor abide by laws. In this situation, the enforcement of laws becomes a problem. Laws are just only when these are accepted not out of fear of external power but when inspired by internal feeling for the laws being good, just and reasonable. 

Legal Justice means rule of law and not rule of any person. It includes two things: that all men are equal before law, and that law is equally applicable to all. It provides legal security to all. Law does not discriminate between the rich and the poor. Objective and due dispensation of justice by the courts of law is an essential ingredient of legal justice. 

The legal procedure has to be simple, quick, fair, inexpensive and efficient. There should be effective machinery for preventing unlawful actions. “The aim of law is the establishment of what is legitimate; provide legal security, and prevention of unjust actions. -Salmond’. 

Thus, Justice has four major dimensions: Social Justice, Economic Justice, Political Justice and Legal Justice. All these forms are totally inter-related and inter­dependent. Justice is real only when it exists in all these four dimensions. Without Social and Economic Justice there can be no real Political and Legal Justice. 

Presence of social and economic inequalities always leads to a denial of political and equal justice. An oppressed and poor person is virtually unable to participate is the political process or to seek the protection of law and law courts. Likewise, without political rights and equal protection of law no person can really get his social and economic rights and freedoms protected. Further, Justice needs the presence of rights, liberty and equality in society and only then can it really characterise life in society. 

Q22. Define liberalism and examine its basic principles.

Liberalism is a political and philosophical ideology to establish individual freedom, consent and equality.  

Liberalism is a group of political, social, and economic theories that are based on liberty, equality, and consent of the governed. These theories have impacted the creation of many documents in world history. One of these documents is the United States Constitution, which has liberalism as one of its chief foundations. Another example of a document built upon liberalism is the Declaration of Independence. 

John Locke and Thomas Hobbes are the proponent of Liberalism. 

Characteristics of Liberalism 

Key features of liberalism include: 

• Individual liberty 

• Equality 
• Economic freedom 
• Limited government 
• Rule of law 
• Democratic government 

Principles of liberalism :- 

• Recognition of importance of the individual. 
• Faith in Rationality of the human Individual. 
• Individual is the center of all social life. 
• Opposition the blind faith and tradition. 

• Support for Rights and Freedom of the Individual. 
• Firm support for liberty. 
• Politics is the instrument of establishing rule of order and justice in society. 
• Politics is the means for the promotion of common interest. 
• Politics as the means of conflict resolution in society. 

• State as the means, Individual as the End. 
• Constitutional and limited government. 
• Support for democracy. 
• Open and free struggle for power as the condition for securing best popular, responsive and responsible government. 
• Faith in secularism. 

• Tolerance towards dissent. 
• Pluralist society and Multiculturalism. 
• Faith in liberalisation of Economy. 
• Competition is essential condition for promoting common goods. 
• Economic competition essential for increase production and economy. 
• Faith in internationalism and Brotherhood. 

Q23. Write an essay on Fascism. 

Fascism is a far-right political philosophy, or theory of government, that emerged in the early twentieth century. Fascism prioritizes the nation over the individual, who exists to serve the nation. While fascist movements could be found in almost every country following World War I, fascism was most successful in Italy and Germany. 

Fascism is a far-right theory of government that opposes the political philosophies of the Enlightenment and the 19th century, including democratic liberalism, communism, and socialism. 

Definition and Beliefs

Fascism is an ultranationalist, authoritarian political philosophy. It combines elements of nationalism, militarism, economic self-sufficiency, and totalitarianism. It opposes communism, socialism, pluralism, individual rights and equality, and democratic government. 

Fascism places the importance of the nation above all else. The unity of the national community is prioritized above the rights of individuals. This leads to an intense interest in defining which groups belong or do not belong to the national body. Fascism is characterized by: 

• strident, often exclusionary nationalism 
• fixation with national decline (real or perceived) and threats to the existence of the national community 
• embrace of paramilitarism 

In fascist states, violence is accepted—even celebrated—if it serves or advances the national community. For fascists, violence often has a redemptive or purifying quality. 

Fascism rejects the practices of representative or liberal democratic government. It holds that these practices interfere with the expression of the national will. Instead, fascist governments are one-party states led by an authoritarian leader who claims to embody the national will. Fascists define the national will as advancing the interests of the national community. This usually means: 

• protecting or elevating the rights of the national community above the rights of those seen as alien 
• removing obstacles to national unity and suppressing those seen as challenging it 

• expanding the size and influence of the national state 
• often, also seeking to expand territory through armed conflict 

 
The tenets of Fascism are as follows: 

1. Nationalism (with or without expansionism): Nationalism is a key foundation of fascism. The fascist view of a nation is that of a single organic entity that binds people together by their ancestry and is a natural unifying force of people. The ideology seeks to resolve economic, social and political problems by achieving a millenarian national rebirth exalting the nation above all else and promoting traits of unity, strength and purity 

2. Totalitarianism: Absolute control by the state is the hallmark of fascism. It opposes liberal democracy and rejects multi-party systems in favour of one-party systems that will, in its view, benefit the nation. In order achieve this a fascist state pursues policies of social indoctrination through propaganda in education and the media and regulation of the production of educational and media materials. Such steps are undertaken to purge ideas that are not in line with the views of the state 

3. Economy: Fascism presented itself as an alternative to both socialism and free-market capitalism. Fascism advocated economic control with self-sufficiency as a major goal. It advocated a resolution of domestic class conflict within a nation to secure national solidarity 

Fascist economics supported a state-controlled economy that accepted a mix of private and public ownership over the means of production. Economic planning was applied to both the public and private sector and the prosperity of private enterprise depended on its acceptance of synchronizing itself with the economic goals of the state. Fascist economic ideology supported the profit motive but emphasized that industries must uphold the national interest as superior to private profit. 

4. Action: Fascism emphasizes direct action which supports political violence and believes in its legitimacy as a core part of its politics. The basis of fascisms support of violent action is connected towards social Darwinism, which believes that a perceived superior race has all the right to dominate races that are thought to be weaker. 

A brief history of Fascism 

The period following World War I in 1919 was marked by weak governments and economic hardship. Events such as the Russian Revolution and the Great Depression had further made economic prosperity a distant dream in post-war Europe. This was more evident in Italy and Germany. The Weimar Republic of Germany had inherited a country reeling from defeat and the harsh sanctions imposed on it by the Versailles treaty. The economic hardship in 1929 further aggravated matters as inflation rendered the German currency virtually useless.  

This stopped the German government from paying war reparations under the Versailles treaty. France in a bid to force the Germans to repay the debt owed briefly occupied the Ruhr valley. Events such as these were fertile grounds for Hitler and his Nazi party (the German variant of Fascism) to offer an alternative. Hitler promised to do away with the ‘injustices of the Versailles treaty’ and usher in a new era of prosperity. Benito Mussolini of Italy also rose to power in similar conditions. 

The Fascist movements in both countries met their end after the defeat of Germany and Italy in 1945 during World War II. But the ideology was alive in Spain under General Franco and under General Pinochet of Chile who ruled the country until the 1970s. 

Today fascism exists as fringe movements in contrast to its past mobilisations. Even though such movements have yet to make any mark in national elections, they are gaining momentum due to ongoing issues of war, immigration and other crises that have effected their nations as of late. 

Q24. What is Nationalism? Discuss its merits and demerits. 

Nationalism: – 
The desire of a group of people who share the same race, culture, language, etc. to form an independent country. 

A feeling of love or pride for your own country; a feeling that your country is better than any other. 

Nationalism is an ideology expressed by people who fervently believe that their nation is superior to all others. These feelings of superiority are often based on shared ethnicity, language, religion, culture, or social values. From a purely political standpoint, nationalism aims to defend the country’s popular sovereignty—the right to govern itself—and to protect it from the political, social, and cultural pressures posed by the modern global economy. In this sense, nationalism is seen as the antithesis of globalism. 

• Politically, nationalists strive to protect the nation’s sovereignty, the right to govern itself. 
• Nationalists’ feelings of superiority are usually based on shared ethnicity, language, religion, culture, or social values. 

• Extreme nationalists believe that their country has the right to dominate other nations through military aggression if necessary. 
• The ideologies of nationalism are contrary to those of globalism and the modern globalization movement.  
• Economic nationalism strives to protect a nation’s economy from foreign competition, often through the practice of protectionism. 
• Carried to its extremes, nationalism can lead to authoritarianism and the exclusion from the society of certain ethnic or racial groups. 

Merits of Nationalism: 

• Nationalism makes an individual to feel that the nation is above all and raises the standard of thinking and behaving of individuals about nation. 
• Nationalism asserts independent living and thinking among the citizens of country. 
• Nationalism creates a sense to make country free from colonial rule or from those who rule over the nation from outside (foreigners, etc.). 
• Nationalism gives an opportunity to each nation for development of its culture and develop a sense of pride towards the culture and heritage of a nation. 
• Nationalism makes a country self-sufficient to meet the basic necessities of a nation during a crisis. 
• Nationalism creates healthy rivals at international level to get better standard of living, social life, etc. 

 
Demerits of nationalism: 

• Nationalism has resulted in the World War I and II due to greed of people to expand their own nationalism beyond territories. 
• In nationalism, each fact is exaggerated, i.e., national achievements are given wide publicity to pose a major problem. 
• Nationalism misuses the authority which creates a larger gap between the rich and the poor by making the rich richer and the poor poorer. 
• Nationalism can be used against slave countries by capitalist countries. Hence, colonialism can never come to an end. 

Q25. What is Democracy? Discuss the basic features of democracy. 

Democracy is a type of government where the rulers are elected by the people. Every citizen of a democratic country has a say and a role in the final decision-making process of the government. All citizens share a right to education, information and to vote.  

According to Abraham Lincoln, “Democracy is a government of the people, by the people and for the people”. 

According to Pro. Seeley, “ Democracy is a government in which everyone has a share”. 

Some undeniable features of democracy are as follows;  

3. Rule of law. 
4. Everyone is equal before the law. 
5. Democratic voting system with active citizen participation. 
6. Representation of Minorities. 
7. Freedom of Speech, Expression, and Choice. 
8. Right to Education. 
9. Independent Judiciary. 
10. Right to Form Association and Union. 
11. Democratic Governance paired with political tolerance.  
12. Universal adult franchise. 

Q26. Write a short essay on types of Rights. 

Rights are those essential conditions of social life without which no person can generally realize his best self. In simple words, rights are the common claims of people which every civilized society recognizes as essential claims for their development, and which are therefore enforced by the state. 

Types of Rights 

Natural Rights: 

Faith in natural rights is strongly expressed by several scholars. They hold that people inherit several rights from nature. Before they came to live in society and state, they used to live in a state of nature. In it, they enjoyed certain natural rights, like the right to life, right to liberty and right to property. Natural rights are parts of human nature and reason. 

However, several other scholars regard the concept of natural rights as imaginary. Rights are the products of social living. These can be used only in a society. Rights have behind them the recognition of society as common claims for development, and that is why the state protects these rights. 

Moral Rights: 

Moral Rights are those rights which are based on human consciousness. They are backed by moral force of human mind. These are based on human sense of goodness and justice. These are not backed by the force of law. Sense of goodness and public opinion are the sanctions behind moral rights. 

If any person violates any moral right, no legal action can be taken against him. The state does not enforce these rights. Its courts do not recognize these rights. Moral Rights include rules of good conduct, courtesy and of moral behaviour. These stand for moral perfection of the people Legal Rights. 

Legal rights are those rights which are recognized and enforced by the state. Any violation of any legal right is punished by law. Law courts of the state enforce legal rights. These rights can be enforced against individuals and also against the government. In this way, legal rights are different from moral rights. Legal rights are equally available to all the citizens. All citizens enjoy legal rights without any discrimination. They can go to the courts for getting their legal rights enforced. 

Legal Rights are of three types: 

1. Civil Rights: 

Civil rights are those rights which provide opportunity to each person to lead a civilized social life. These fulfill basic needs of human life in society. Right to life, liberty and equality are civil rights. Civil rights are protected by the state. 

2. Political Rights: 

Political rights are those rights by virtue of which citizens get a share in the political process. These enable them to take an active part in the political process. These rights include right to vote, right to get elected, right to hold public office and right to criticise and oppose the government. Political rights are really available to the people in a democratic state. 

3. Economic Rights: 

Economic rights are those rights which provide economic security to the people. These enable all citizens to make proper use of their civil and political rights. The basic needs of every person are related to his food, clothing, shelter, medical treatment etc. Without the fulfillment of these no person can really enjoy his civil and political rights. It is therefore essential, that every person must get the right to work, right to adequate wages, right to leisure and rest, and right to social security in case of illness, physical disability and old age. 

Q27. Discuss the various types of liberty. 

The word “Liberty” stands derived from the Latin word ‘Liber” which means ‘free’. In this sense liberty means freedom from restraints and the freedom to act as one likes. However, in a civil society such a meaning of Liberty is taken to be negative and harmful. 

Types of Liberty: 

(1) Natural Liberty: 

Traditionally the concept of natural liberty has been very popular. Natural liberty is taken to mean the enjoyment of unrestrained natural freedom. It is justified on the ground that since man is born free, he is to enjoy freedom as he wills. All restraints negate his freedom. 

The social contractual lists (Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau) championed the cause of natural liberty. Rousseau became famous for his words: “Man is born free, but is in chains everywhere.” It is popularly believed that man has inherited the right to liberty from nature. Natural reason is the basis of liberty. 

However, the concept of natural liberty is now considered to be an imaginary one. There can be no real freedom in a state of nature or a ‘jungle society’. Unrestrained freedom can create anarchy. It is only in an orderly society characterised by essential restraints based on laws and rules that real liberty can be possible. Natural liberty can lead to a living based on the evil principle of ‘might is right’ or the ‘rule of muscle power.’ 

(2) Civil Liberty: 

The liberty which each individual enjoys as a member of the society is called civil liberty. It is equally available to all the individuals. All enjoy equal freedom and rights in society. Civil liberty is not unrestrained liberty. It is enjoyed only under some restrictions (Laws and Rules) imposed by the state and society. Civil Liberty is the very opposite of Natural liberty. Whereas Natural Liberty denounces the presence of restraints of any kind, Civil Liberty accepts the presence of some rational restraints imposed by the State and Society. 

Further, Civil Liberty has two features: 

(i) State guarantees Civil Liberty: 

Civil liberty means liberty under law. Law creates the conditions necessary for the enjoyment of liberty. However, it refrains from creating obstacles in the way of enjoyment of liberty by the people. It protects liberty from such obstacles and actions of other men and organisations as can limit the equal liberty of all. The Laws of State imposes such reasonable restraints as are deemed necessary for the enjoyment of liberty by the people. 

(ii) Civil liberty also stands for the protection of Rights and Freedom from undue interferences: 

Civil liberty involves the concept of limiting the possibilities for violation of the rights of the people by the government. This is ensured by granting and guaranteeing the fundamental rights of the people. It also stands for providing constitutional and judicial protection to rights and liberty of the people. 

(3) Political Liberty: 

Good and adequate opportunities for using political rights by the people are defined as political liberty. When the people have the freedom of participation in the political process, it is held that they enjoy political liberty. 

Political of liberty involves the freedom to exercise the right to vote, right to contest elections, right to hold public office, right to criticise and oppose the policies of the government, right to form political parties, interest groups and pressure groups, and the right to change the government through constitutional means. 

Laski observes “Political liberty means the power to be active in the affairs of the state.” Such a liberty is possible only in a democracy. The real exercise of political rights by the people is a sure sign of the presence of political liberty and democracy. 

(4) Individual Liberty/ Personal Liberty: 

Individual liberty means the freedom to pursue one’s desires and interests as a person, but which do not clash with the interests or desires of others. The freedom of speech and expression, freedom of residence, freedom of movement, freedom of conscience, freedom of tastes and pursuits, freedom to choose any profession or trade or occupation, the freedom to enjoy the fruits of one’s labour, the right to personal property, the freedom to profess or not to profess any religion, and freedom to accept or not to accept any ideology, all fall under the category of individual freedom. However, all these freedoms are to be exercised in a way as does not hinder the equal freedom of others as well as does not violate public order, health and morality. 

(5) Economic Liberty: 

Laski defines economic liberty as freedom from the wants of tomorrow and availability of adequate opportunities for earning the livelihood. It stands for freedom from poverty, unemployment and the ability to enjoy at least three basic minimum needs — food, clothing and shelter. Laski writes, “Economic Liberty means security and opportunity to find reasonable significance in the earning of one’s daily bread”. 

Economic Liberty can be enjoyed only when there is freedom from hunger, starvation, destitution and unemployment. Positively, it means the availability of the right to work and adequate opportunities for earning one’s livelihood. Without fair economic liberty, political liberty becomes meaningless. When the people are not free from the fear of hunger, starvation and destitution they can never think of enjoying their rights and freedoms. 

The grant of economic liberty to the people demands the grant of right to work, right to reasonable wages, adequate opportunities for livelihood, right to rest and leisure, and right to economic security in the old age. 

(6) National Liberty: 

National liberty is another name for independence of the nation. 

It means complete freedom of the people of each state: 

(i) To have a constitution of their own, 

(ii) To freely organise their own government, 

(iii) To freely adopt their policies and programmes, 

(iv) To pursue independence in relations with all countries of the world, and 

(v) Freedom from external control. 

(7) Religious Liberty: 

It means the freedom to profess or not to profess any religion. It means the freedom of faith and worship and non-intervention of State in religious affairs of the people. It also means equal status of all religions to freely carry out their activities in society. Secularism demands such a religious freedom. 

(8) Moral Liberty: 

It means the freedom to act according to one’s conscience. It stands for the liberty to work for securing moral self-perfection. Freedom to pursue moral values is moral freedom. 

Thus, when one demands the right to liberty one really demands liberty in all these forms. 

Q28. Discuss the different waves of feminism. 

1. First Wave: 1848 – 1920 
2. Second Wave: 1963 – 1980s 
3. Third Wave: 1990s – 2010 
4. Fourth Wave: Present Day 

1^st wave 

The first wave of feminism takes root in the United States (US) and the United Kingdom (UK), starting in the mid-19^th century. At this time, the main objective for women was to attain legal rights. The Seneca Falls convention of 1848 marks the beginning of the American first wave. This was the first women’s rights convention taking place in the US, whose attendants were comprised of many abolitionists as well. 

In the beginning, equal property rights and the abolishment of a husband’s ownership of his wife stood at the forefront. Towards the end of the 19^th century, the focus shifted to demanding women suffrage, with the hope that the right to vote would preface the access to further rights. Many advocates in the US, especially women of colour such as Sojourner Truth or Maria Stewart, fought for this to be paralleled with universal suffrage. However, the established feminist movement, members of which include Susan B. Anthony, ignored these voices and instrumentalised racist argumentation for its own cause, for example after the 15^th Amendment of 1870, which (theoretically) gave voting rights to African American men, causing outrage among many white suffragettes. 

The first wave came to a close in around 1920, when some white women (of a certain age and economic background) had been granted the right to vote in the US and the UK. 

2^nd wave 

The second wave is said to have begun in 1963, catalysed by the publishing of Betty Friedan’s “The Feminine Mystique”, a work that gained remarkable reach in the US. It argues, contrary to the 1950’s female stereotype, that women are not fulfilled by caretaking, marriage or housework duties, and ties into the statement that “the personal is political”, which has become a representative slogan of the second wave. 

Over the next two decades, Western feminist movements achieved legislative milestones in terms of reproductive rights, the right to equal pay and to equal education. It fought for women to possess their own bank accounts without a husband’s approval, and denounced domestic violence and sexual harassment. Sexual violence was a central theme to the movement, and in the US there were also campaigns to eliminate forced sterilisations of people of colour and people with disabilities. 

The second wave managed to mobilise large groups for protest and activism, which fuelled the trope of the “angry feminist”, brought about the myth of bra-burning, and portrayed feminists as hysterical women who were falling out of line. 

3^rd wave 

The third wave begins in the 1990s, with the Anita Hill case of 1991 as a distinctive element to its upsurge. Anita Hill, an African-American law professor, testified about facing sexual harassment by Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas, marking one of the earliest public debates on workplace harassment. 

Furthermore, the third wave is characterised by an increasing awareness of intersectionality, a term coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw in the 80’s. It recognised the interwoven forms of discrimination of racism, classism, ableism and more, and also criticised the second wave for primarily representing the demands of white, cis, straight, middle-class women. 

Philosopher Judith Butler is also considered a central figure to the third wave, as she defends the differentiation between sex and gender, strengthening the support of trans rights. 

Lastly, riot girl music groups emerged, giving rise to punk feminism and contrasting the previous wave with a reclamation of femininity. 

While there are many claims that only these first three waves of feminism exist, meaning that the 3^rd wave is still ongoing, others argue the third gave way to a fourth wave in the 2010s. 

4^th wave 

The main attribute of the fourth wave is its relationship to the media and its online advocacy for social change. This means that it promotes feminist causes on the internet, especially on social media, with campaigns on rape culture and body shaming, or hashtags like #MeToo or #YesAllWomen. This has led to a transformation of pop culture, resonating with young girls, women and minority genders around the world, giving rise to young activist online spaces. While the fourth wave supports the features of the third, it is argued that it goes a step further in terms of sex- and body-positivity, as well as reinforcing women’s empowerment. 

Q29. “State is a necessary evil.” Comment.

The individualistic theory considers the State as ‘a necessary evil’. It is an evil because it encroaches upon the freedom of individuals. As it is an evil, it is better to have as little of it as far as possible. But at the same time, the State is regarded as ‘necessary’ because of selfish and egoistic nature of human beings. It is necessary in order to stop the anti-social activities of individuals in the society. But it should not be all powerful, omnipotent and omnicompetent. Hence it is considered as a ‘necessary evil”. 

State, can be defined in political science, as generally a group of people inhabiting a specific territory and living according to a common legal and political authority; a body politic or nation. In this definition, the term state includes government. George Washington said that government is not reason, it is not eloquence, It is force and, like fire, it is a dangerous servant and a fearful master. The statement under discussion can be obtained or deduced from Thomas Pain quoted “Society in every state is a blessing, but government, even in its best state, is but a necessary evil; in its worst state an intolerable one; for when we suffer or are exposed to the same miseries by a government, which we might expect in a country without government, our calamity is heightened by reflecting that we furnish the means by which we suffer” [Thomas Paine, Common Sense 1776].  

It has been said that all Government is an evil. It would be more proper to say that the necessity of any Government is a misfortune. This necessity however exists; and the problem to be solved is, not what form of Government is perfect, but which of the forms is least imperfect. Thomas Jefferson said in his first inaugural address (March 4, 1801) that a wise and frugal government… shall restrain men from injuring one another, shall leave them otherwise free to regulate their own pursuits of industry and improvement, and shall not take from the mouth of labor the bread it has earned. This is the sum of good government.  

“Why has government been instituted at all? Alexander Hamilton, a federalist said the passions of men will not conform to the dictates of reason and justice without constraint. Government is instituted for the common good; for the protection, safety, prosperity, and happiness of the people; and not for profit, honor, or private interest of any one man, family, or class of men; therefore, the people alone have an incontestable, unalienable, and indefeasible right to institute government; and to reform, alter, or totally change the same, when their protection, safety, prosperity, and happiness require it [John Adams, Thoughts on Government 1776]. Its necessity can be shown even if we assume that, because of their (the people’s) gentleness, or angelic goodness, nobody ever harms anybody else. In such a world there would still be weaker and stronger men, and the weaker ones would have no legal right to be tolerated by the stronger ones, but would owe them gratitude for their being so kind as to tolerate them. Those (whether strong or weak) who think this an unsatisfactory state of affairs, and who think that every person should have a right to live, and that every person should have a legal claim to be protected against the power of the strong, will agree that we need a state that protects the rights of all. “If men were angels, no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary. In framing a government which is to be administered by men over men, the great difficulty lies in this: you must first enable the government to control the governed; and in the next place, oblige it to control itself. ” – James Madison.  

Why then is government a necessary evil? Its necessity has been explained but why is it then evil? Government is a form of insurance for society. It regulates and promotes social contracts (I won’t kill or steal from you if you promise not to kill or steal from me). Without government, there would be no society. Too much government and you have no freedom making it a necessary evil. Furthermore, it is easy to see that the state must be a constant danger, or (as I have ventured to call it) an evil, though a necessary one. For if the state is to fulfill its function, it must have more power at any rate than any single private citizen or public corporation; and although we might design institutions to minimize the danger that these powers will be misused, we can never eliminate the danger completely. On the contrary, it seems that most men will always have to pay for the protection of the state, not only in the form of taxes but even in the form of humiliation suffered, for example, at the hands of bullying officials. The thing is not to pay too heavily for it. Thirdly, when two or more people live in the same area they must agree somehow to limit their rights where rights overlap. For example, water must be shared. They do this because the blessings of cooperation are better than the loneliness of rights. Then come the misunderstandings: some people never learn to understand rights, they think its winner take all. 

Q30. Discuss the merits and demerits of proportional representation. 

Proportional representation (PR) is a term used to describe a range of electoral systems in which the distribution of seats corresponds closely with the proportion of the total votes cast for each party or individual candidate. PR offers alternatives to first past the post and other majoritarian voting systems based on single-member electoral areas, which tend to produce disproportionate outcomes and to have a bias in favour of larger political groups. PR systems by contrast tend to offer a better chance of representation to smaller parties and groups. 

The advantages of a PR electoral system 

• Moving to proportional representation (PR) in the UK may offer would give minority parties and independent candidates a better chance of winning seats in Parliament. 
• The current First Past the Post electoral system is considered unrepresentative, as candidates can be elected with a very small share of the votes while all other votes cast in the constituency are wasted. 
• PR ensures that the parties would have to appeal to their core supporters, rather than a small number of so called ‘swing voters’ in marginal seats. 

• It could be argued that PR delivers fairer treatment of minority parties and independent candidates 
• Under PR fewer votes are ‘wasted’ as more people’s preferences are taken into account 
• PR potentially offers greater and more-representative choice for voters. 
• PR may encourage turn-out and reduce apathy. 
• PR rarely produces an absolute majority for one party; however, it could be argued that PR ensures greater continuity of government and requires greater consensus in policy-making. 

The disadvantages of a PR electoral system 

• Under FPTP (first past the post), MPs serve the constituency they campaign in. This makes them more inclined to tackle important local issues. 
• PR can potentially provide a route for extremists to force their way into the political mainstream: under a FPTP electoral system this would be unlikely to happen. 
• Some would say that PR produces ‘weak’ coalition governments rather than ‘strong’ majority governments, which arguably can lead to indecision, compromise and even legislative paralysis. 
• PR can also reduce accountability to voters, as an ousted party of government can retain office by finding new coalition partners after an election. 

• The adoption of PR list systems weakens the link between the elected representative and his or her constituency. 
• The greater complexity and choice that PR allows can put voters off voting, by requiring them to have a greater knowledge of individual and party positions. 

Q31. Discuss the essential conditions for the success of democracy.

While admitting that Democracy is the best system, we have to remember that there are several possible demerits which must be controlled. 

In-fact, the success of Democracy can be possible only when it works in such conditions as are essential for its successful working. 

It can be successful only when following conditions are secured: 

1. Democratic Society: 

A democratic society is essential for the success of a democratic government. A democratic society is one which willingly accepts the values of liberty and equality. It is a society which is not characterized by a democratic thinking, no democracy can be successful. Without being supported by a democratic society, no democracy can successfully work. 

2. Economic Equality: 

Economic equality in society can guarantee the success of democracy. Without economic democracy, political democracy remains true only on papers. People cannot be fed on votes, they need foods. They cannot live on mere slogans and populism. Economic equality involving equitable distribution of income and wealth and adequate opportunities for livelihood, is an essential condition for the success of democracy. 

3. Educated and Enlightened Citizenship: 

Democracy is a system which involves a continuous and active involvement of the people in the political process. Without popular and effective political participation, no democracy can be successful. For this purpose, it is essential that literacy should be widespread and people must be enlightened in respect of their rights, freedoms and duties as citizens of a democratic system. 

No democracy can work successfully if its citizens are not prepared to sacrifice their individual interests for the sake of social good. Only educated and enlightened citizens are expected to realize and follow this vital condition for the success of democracy. Illiteracy and ignorance always hinder the success of democracy. The experience of our own country is before us. 

4. Full respect for Fundamental Rights and Freedoms: 

Democracy is regarded as the best form of government because it grants and guarantees fundamental human rights and freedoms to all its people. For this purpose, it is essential for a democracy to take all steps which are necessary for granting, preserving and protecting the rights of the people. For this purpose, Rule of Law, Separation of Powers, Judicial Review, Decentralization of Power and Independence of Judiciary have to be ensured. 

5. Freedom of Press: 

Without freedom of press, we cannot even imagine the working of a democratic government. Public opinion has to be the basis of all policies and decisions of a democratic government. The government must keep a continuous track of the demands of public opinion. 

Press is the means for transmitting the public opinion to the government. Only a free press can perform this task in a desired manner. It is only through a free press that the people can exercise their right to freedom of speech and expression as well as their right to discuss and debate, criticize or support the policies and programmes of their government. Press is often described as the fourth essential but non-governmental institution of democracy. 

6. Well Organised and Active Opposition: 

In a democratic system political parties play a key role. These contest elections, wield power when voted to majority or act as opposition when not is majority. The majority party uses power of the government and the opposition parties criticize the policies of ruling party. Both have to play their respective roles and only then can a democracy work. 

The ruling party can misuse its position by ignoring the interests of the minorities and the people in general. There is every need to keep it under supervision and check. It must be prevented from misusing its power in the name of majority. For this purpose, the existence of a strong, well- organized and well-functioning opposition is always essential. 

7. Mature Leadership: 

The people are sovereign but they have to be led by their leaders and only then can they fruitfully exercise their power. In a democracy the leaders are in reality the policy-makers and the decision-makers. They can perform these tasks only when they are able, mature, honest and dedicated. 

8. Spirit of Tolerance and Compromise: 

In a democratic government no person, group or party can be permitted to act arbitrarily. No one should try to impose one’s will upon others and use power in an arbitrary way. This can be possible only when the people have a high sense of tolerance, accommodation and compromise. 

The majority should not ignore the minority. It must respect the wishes of the minority. The minority should not act in a way as can create hindrances in the way of exercise of power by the majority. This can be secured only when all the people accept tolerance, accommodation, compromise, secularism and mutual give-and-take in national interest as their values. 

9. Well organized and Powerful system of Local Government: 

For a successful working of a democratic system one of the most essential conditions is the existence of a well-organized and powerful system of local government. A local government is that through which the people of a local area meet their local needs and problems with the help of local resources and through a locally elected government. 

It is as such a training school of democracy. Local government system constitutes the grass root level base of a democratic system. Just as no big building can be raised without broad and solid foundations, likewise no democratic government can be really organized and effectively run without the existence of a board, strong and efficient system of local government working at the foundation level. 

10. Democratic Institutions: 

Independence of judiciary, rule of law, decentralization of powers, separation of powers, sound and independent election machinery, healthy education system, and liberalism in thought and actions are the other essential requirements for the success of a democratic system. All these features must be properly secured only then can a democracy be expected to work successfully. 

At these are the essential conditions for the successful working of a democracy. These conditions can help a democracy to reduce its possible demerits as well as to let its merits help the people in developing their personalities and in enjoying their lives. Search