Hostility Towards Educated Indians

1. The emerging middle-class nationalist leadership analysed the exploitative, colonial character of British rule and demanded Indian participation in administration. This period coincided with the birth of the nationalist movement (the Indian National Congress was founded in 1885).
2. The British perceived these actions as challenging their authority and adopted a hostile attitude towards such leadership. Consequently, they opposed all those advocating for modern education from that point onwards.

Attitude Towards the Zamindars

1. In pursuing reactionary policies and wanting to expand their social base, the British sought alliances with the most reactionary social groups, including princes and zamindars. The British aimed to utilise them as a counterweight against nationalist-minded intelligentsia.
2. Consequently, zamindars and landlords were hailed as the ‘natural’ and ‘traditional’ leaders of the people:

• • Most of the lands confiscated from Awadh taluqdars before 1857 were restored to them.
  • The interests and privileges of zamindars and landlords were prioritised over those of the peasants.
  • As a result, the former viewed the British as guarantors of their existence and became staunch supporters of British rule.

Attitude Towards Social Reforms

1. Opting to align with the reactionary segments of Indian society, the British withdrew support for social reforms. They believed that such reforms had provoked the ire of orthodox sections against them.
2. Furthermore, by encouraging caste and communal consciousness, the British bolstered the influence of reactionary forces.

Underdeveloped Social Services

1. A disproportionately large portion of the budget was allocated to the army, civil administration, and war expenses. This allocation left minimal resources for essential social services such as education, healthcare, sanitation, and physical infrastructure.
2. Consequently, the legacy of underinvestment in social services persists, impacting the country today. Moreover, the few facilities that were established primarily served elite sections and urban areas, exacerbating disparities in access to essential services.

Labour Legislations

1. During the 19th-century industrialisation in India, like early Europe, factory and plantation working conditions were abysmal. Long working hours affected men, women, and children, with low wages and inadequate safety measures in overcrowded, poorly-ventilated workplaces.
2. Surprisingly, the initial push for regulating factory worker conditions came from the Lancashire textile capitalist lobby. They feared competition from India’s textile industry, which employed cheap and unregulated labour. This led to the appointment of a commission in 1875, though the first Factory Act passed in 1881.
3. The Indian Factory Act 1881 primarily addressed:
    Child labour issues
    Prohibiting employment of children under 7
    Limiting working hours
    Mandating holidays and safety measures.
4. The Indian Factory Act 1891 included the following:
    Raised the minimum age
    Reduced maximum working hours for children
    Established regulations for women workers
    Mandating weekly holidays
5. However, these laws did not extend to British-owned tea and coffee plantations, where labourers faced ruthless exploitation akin to slavery. Government support for planters included laws making it difficult for labourers to refuse work once a contract was entered, with breaches treated as criminal offences.
6. Further labour laws were enacted under nationalist pressure in the 20th century, yet working conditions remained deplorable, highlighting ongoing challenges in labour rights enforcement.