Literature 

General Studies – I 

UPSC Mains 

Classical Sanskrit Literature 

Sanskrit is an ancient Hindu language. It was used as a dialect by the ancient Indo-Aryans about the year 2000 BCE. It is also known as Vedic Sanskrit due to its origins during the Vedic period. The Vedic period began approximately 1500 BCE and is also known as the Brahmanical period. It eventually became known as Hinduism. As a result, Sanskrit is the traditional language of Hinduism and Brahmanism. 

Origin of Sanskrit 

• Sanskrit’s linguistic ancestors are Proto-Indo-Iranian and, eventually, Proto-Indo-European languages, implying that it can be traced historically back to people who spoke Indo-Iranian, also known as the Aryan languages, as well as the Indo-European languages, a family of several hundred related languages and dialects. 
• Panini (500 B.C.) was a significant figure in the evolution of the Sanskrit language. 
• He authored the master book of grammar known as Ashtadhyayi, which served as a lighthouse for the subsequent period, after condensing approximately 10 grammar schools prominent at the time. 
• Panini’s linguistic system was followed by both literary and spoken Sanskrit. 
• An estimated 46 percent of humankind now speak an Indo-European language. 
• English, Hindi, Bengali, Punjabi, Spanish, Portuguese, and Russian are the most commonly spoken Indo-European languages, with over 100 million speakers each. 
• The written form of the language may be traced back to the 2nd millennium BCE, when the Rig Veda, a collection of holy hymns, is said to have been transcribed after being passed down orally for generations and preserved verbally in the Guru-Disciple relationship. 
• The flamboyance of the Rig Veda’s excellent account of the forces of nature reflects the purity of this rendition (Vedic era, 1500 – 500 BCE) of Sanskrit. 
• Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, the oldest Hindu writings, which were produced between 1500 and 500 BCE. 
• The Vedas contain hymns, incantations known as Samhitas, and theological and philosophical advice for Vedic priests. 
• According to Indian tradition, the Sanskrit language has no beginning and no end. It lasts forever. It was formed by the self-born God. It’s heavenly. It is indestructible. 
• It was initially employed in the Vedas and has since become a form of expression in various domains. 

 
Sanskrit Literature 

• Sanskrit literature began with the spoken or sung literature of the Vedas approximately 1500 BCE and continued with the oral legacy of the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India, circa 1200 BCE, the time following the Bronze Age. 
• Vedic Sanskrit began the shift from a primary language to the second language of religion and study around 1000 BCE. 
• Panini, an ancient scholar, standardized the grammar of Vedic Sanskrit around 500 BCE, comprising 3,959 rules of syntax, semantics, and morphology (the study of words and how they are formed and relate to each other). 
• Panini’s Astadhyayi is the most significant of the surviving works of Vyakarana, the Sanskrit language analysis, and consists of eight chapters outlining his principles and their origins. 
• The Gupta period and the subsequent pre-Islamic middle kingdoms of India, covering about the 3rd to 8th century CE, are considered the classical periods of Sanskrit literature. 
• Hindu Puranas, a type of Indian literature that comprises myths and stories, is written throughout the Classical Sanskrit period. 
• Drama evolved as a unique form of Sanskrit literature in the late third and early fourth century BCE, influenced in part by Vedic mythology. 
• Shudraka, Bhasa, Asvaghosa, and Kalidasa are among the most famous Sanskrit dramatists; their numerous plays are still extant, albeit little is known about the playwrights themselves. 
• Abhijnanasakuntalam, a drama by Kalidasa, is widely recognized as a masterpiece and was one of the earliest Sanskrit works to be translated into English, as well as many other languages. 
• Works of Sanskrit literature, such as Patanjali’s Yoga-Sutras, which are still used by yoga practitioners today, and the Upanishads, a collection of ancient Hindu treatises, were translated into Arabic and Persian. 
• Sanskrit fairy tales and fables were marked by ethical reflections and proverbial philosophy, with a specific style making its way into Persian and Arabic literature. 
• Exercising influence on famous stories such as One Thousand and One Nights, better known in English as Arabian Nights. 
• Poetry was also an important part of the language throughout this time period. 
• Kalidasa was the most famous Classical Sanskrit poet, with a basic yet lovely style, although subsequent poetry evolved toward more elaborate tactics such as stanzas that read the same backward and forwards, words that could be separated to give new meanings, and sophisticated metaphors. 

Vedic Sanskrit 

• In terms of literary linkage, Sanskrit is divided into two periods: Vedic and Classical. 
• Vedic Sanskrit is found in the sacred literature of the Vedas, particularly the Rig Veda, Puranas, and Upanishads, where the most original form of the language was utilized. 
• Sanskrit has long been used as a medium of communication in Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism. 
• Sanskrit literature has the distinction of having been employed in ancient poetry, theatre, and science, as well as religious and philosophical books. 
• The language is thought to have been established by studying the natural evolution of sounds produced in the human mouth, thereby emphasizing the importance of sound in language production. 
• There are also abstract nouns and philosophical phrases in Vedic Sanskrit that are not present in any other language. 
• The consonants and vowels are adaptable enough to communicate subtle concepts by grouping them together. 
• Due to its breadth, intricacy, and hundreds of words to represent a single concept or object, the language resembles an unending ocean without a bottom. 

Classical Sanskrit – Ashtadhyayi 

• Classical Sanskrit arose towards the conclusion of the Vedic period when the Upanishads were the last holy scriptures to be written down. 
• Following this, Panini, a descendant of Pani and grammar and linguistic scholar, established the perfected version of the language. 
• Panini’s timeframe is thought to be about the 4th century BCE when he published his book Ashtadhyayi,’ which translates as “eight chapters,” as the sole extant fundamental and analytical source of Sanskrit grammar. 
• It is thought to be the only source of Sanskrit grammar and vocabulary today because all that existed previously was only mentioned in Panini’s Ashtadhyayi. 
• Despite the fact that India has a library of 5000 spoken languages, Sanskrit is acknowledged and accepted as the sole sacred language giving rise to the only known sacred literature by everybody. 
• Panini was in charge of standardizing the language, which is still in use today in various versions. 
• Sanskrit is a rarely spoken language in India, with some claiming it as their first language, but it is proudly acknowledged in the country’s Constitution as one of the 14 original languages. 

Influence of Sanskrit on Other Languages 

• Sanskrit has had a significant influence on other Indian languages, including Hindi, which is now one of India’s official languages, and Indo-Aryan languages such as Kannada and Malayalam. 
• The influence of Buddhist literature in Sanskrit, as well as their translation and distribution, has had an impact on Sino-Tibetan languages. 
• Telugu is believed to be a highly lexically Sanskrit language, from which it has taken numerous terms. 
• It has had an influence on the Chinese language since China has adopted a number of specialized terms from Sanskrit. 
• Furthermore, Thailand and Sri Lanka have been heavily affected by Sanskrit and have several terms that sound similar. 
• The Javanese language, like the current Indonesian language and the old Malay language used in Malaysia, has been influenced by Sanskrit. 
• Above all, because both are Indo-European languages. 
• English, the current modern international language, has been influenced by Sanskrit and has picked up many loanwords from the ancient language (for example, ‘primitive’ form ‘preaching’, meaning historical, ‘ambrosia’ from ‘amruta’ meaning food of the Gods, ‘attack’ from ‘akramana’ meaning taking aggressive action, etc). 

Importance of Sanskrit 

• Sanskrit is vital to Indian culture because of its extensive use in religious literature, primarily in Hinduism, and because most modern Indian languages have been directly derived from, or strongly influenced by, Sanskrit. 
• Knowledge of Sanskrit was a marker of social class and educational attainment in ancient India, and it was taught mainly to members of the higher castes (social groups based on birth and employment status). 
• In the medieval era, Sanskrit continued to be spoken and written, particularly by Brahmins (the name for Hindu priests of the highest caste) for scholarly communication. 
• Sanskrit is still used in the Indian subcontinent today. 
• Since India’s independence in 1947, about 3,000 Sanskrit works have been written, and more than 90 weekly, bimonthly, and quarterly newspapers have been published in Sanskrit. 
• Sudharma, a Sanskrit-language daily newspaper, has been published in India since 1970. 
• Sanskrit is widely employed in the Carnatic and Hindustani schools of classical music, and it is still used in Hindu temple worship as well as Buddhist and Jain religious traditions. 
• Sanskrit is a prominent component of the academic linguistic discipline of Indo-European studies, which focuses on both extinct and extant Indo-European languages and may be studied at major institutions worldwide. 

Sanskrit Authors 

Adikavi Valmiki 

• Valmiki is a sage with exceptional penmanship and knowledge. 
• He was given the name Adikavi after cursing a hunter for killing a Kraunch bird in a completely unique chhandas. 
• Valmiki composed the Ramayana, also known as the Adikavya, in seven portions and 24000 couplets filled with the most appealing imagery, idioms, and metaphors, wisdom and dignity. 
• He gave birth to a one-of-a-kind literary and philosophical masterpiece, one of the world’s greatest works of literature. 
• Valmiki admired and cherished life in all its glory and complexity, including birds, trees, rivers, seasons, forests, and even scientific discoveries. 

Maharishi Veda Vyasa 

• Maharshi Vedavyasa is a well-known individual who stands out as an example of high human brilliance and immense ocean-like knowledge. 
• He is the grandson of the sage Vasistha and the son of Rishi Parashar. 
• He spent his entire life at Badrikashram eating only Badri fruits and hence became known as Badarayan. 
• He was given the title Vedavyasa after categorizing the extant Vedic information into Samhitas. 

Kalidasa 

• He is widely regarded as the greatest Sanskrit poet of all time. Poets, critics, and the general public have all recognized, respected, and admired his talent. 
• Kalidasa ranks high among worldwide poets such as Dante, Goethe, Shakespeare, and others. 
• Scholars have differing views about his birthdate. Various hypotheses situate him between 200 BC and 600 AD. 
• Kalidasa’s creative brilliance elevated Sanskrit poetry to new heights of grace and refinement. 
• His demeanor is pure and chaste. His writings are unartistic and characterized by brevity, simplicity of expression, and simple flowing language. 
• His texts are embellished with similes that are both charming and fitting. He is a naturalist poet. 

Patanjali 

• Patanjali has been defined as Patantyah Anjalaya yasmai, which means “one for whom the hands are folded as a sign of reverence.” 
• Patanjali is revered as a great guru and is known by various names, including Gonardiya, Phani, Adhipati, and Sheshraja. 
• He is said to be a manifestation of Sheshanaga, according to folklore. 
• Patanjali was a master in at least three areas of Sanskrit study: yoga, vyakarana, and ayurveda. 
• According to an old passage, he was a sage who cleansed the dirtiness of the mind with yoga, the dirtiness of speech with grammar, and the dirtiness of the body with ayurveda. 
• Thus, Patanjali made significant contributions to the sciences of meditation, language, and medicine. 
• The Yogasutra of Patanjali is the foundational text of Ashtanga Yoga Philosophy. 
• Mahananda, Charak – parishkara, Siddhanta – sarawali, paramartha – sar, and lok shastra are among the works credited to him. 

Jaideva 

• Jaideva is a well-known lyric poet, and his famous Geeti Kavya Geeta Govinda inspired other poets, artists, and dancers to model their performances on this exquisite work. 
• It contains a lovely blend of poetry and conversations, which adds to the dramatic effect. Some Western academics classify it as a musical drama. 
• Jaideva was a Bengali poet who thrived in the 12th century A.D. in the court of Raja Laxman Sen. 
• His work has touched the hearts of every Indian Krishna Bhakta. 

Conclusion 

Sanskrit has a lengthy and holy history that may frequently be traced back to Gods and their devotion. It began as a spoken language of the Gods and has been diluted of its purity because various interpretations, exact grammar, and the intricacy of its application have been embraced by few and avoided by many for its invincibility in breadth and understanding. Despite its huge vocabulary and sophisticated syntax and prose, many ancient scriptures and manuscripts are translated from Sanskrit today, because no other language can provide such a sumptuous literary grasp of the past while still serving as a medium for flawless human expression. 

Vedas 

Vedic literature is the basic form of classical Hinduism. Vyasa was the compiler of all the 4 Vedas into 4 Samhitas. 

The 4 types of Vedas are the oldest and holiest scriptures in existence for thousands of years. The word “Veda” stands simply for Knowledge. These Sanskrit manuscripts were written during the period of the Iron Age. 

These were considered to be a part of teaching during ancient times in universities such as Nalanda, Taxila, and Vikramashila. These sacred texts were taught as “Gyan” by the Gurus to their shishyas. 

Types of Vedas 

Types of Vedas 

• The composition of these religious texts is a reflection of Vedic Sanskrit, which originated during ancient India. These four Vedas are named Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda (Atharveda) respectively. 
• Each of these books consists of four major kinds of narratives, such as- Samhitas (the sacred mantras and benedictions), Aryankas (The ritual texts about sacrifices, ceremonies, and many other types of symbolic renouncing), Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals), and Upanishads (Sanskrit words discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual understanding). 
• Vedas are the treasure of texts and mantras containing spiritual knowledge and encompassing different but all aspects of our life. 

 
Types of Vedas: Classification 

Type of Veda	Key feature
1. Rigveda	“Earliest form of Veda” preaches the texts about Hindu tradition, hymns of gods, and various other rituals. Rigveda composed around 3100 BC or early.
2. Yajurveda	It is a collection of mantras, verses, and spiritual formulas, recited orally by the Hindu priests. Period:1200-800 BC Includes a total of 1975 verses.
3. Samaveda	Veda of melodies and chants. Also known as “Book of Chants” It is believed to be part of the spiritual manuscript dated from 1500 BC.
4. Atharvaveda	It is a collection of spells, charms, and prayers. It teaches humans about prosperity and peace to society. Discovered between 1000-900 BC. Commonly known as “Book of Science and Medicine” Consists of a collection of about 6000 mantras and 730 hymns.

Rigveda 

Rigveda means “verses of knowledge”. It is the oldest of four Vedas in Hindu tradition. It consists of 1028 hymns, compiled into 10 ten books known as “mandalas”. All these hymns are dedicated to Vedic gods such as Agni (god of fire), Indra (lord of heaven), Mitra, Varuna (God of Water), Surya (Sun), etc., and serve a significant motive. 

• The First Mandala of the Rig Veda has 131 hymns addressing the first god “Agni”. 
• The Second Mandala of the Rig Veda has 42 hymns, is the oldest core of Veda comprising “family”, dedicated mainly to the Lord Agni and Indra. 
• The Third Mandala contains 62 hymns. Verse 3.62.10 in the manuscript has the greatest importance in Hindu culture, known as ‘Gayatri Mantra’. 
• The Fourth mandala has 58 hymns; all hymns in this book are attributed to Vamadeva Gautama. 
• The Fifth and Sixth Mandal have 87 and 75 hymns respectively, deities addressing God Indra and Agni including the Vishvadevas, Pushan and Asvins, Ushas, Maruts, and Prithvi. 
• Yamuna, Sarasvati, and Hariupiya are the rivers that are mentioned in the sixth mandala. Verse 6.61 is entirely dedicated to Sarasvati and 6.45.31 to Ganga. 
• The Eight Mandala individually has 103 hymns, dedicated to Indra, Agni, Asvins, Maruts, Varunas, Mitra-Varunas, Vishvadevas, and Somas. 
• The Ninth Mandala is also known as the Soma Mandala. It has 114 hymns, dedicated to soma pavamana the “Purifying soma”. 
• The Tenth Mandala of the Rig Veda has 191 hymns, including the Purusha sukta and dialogue of Sarama with the Panis. (10. 15) is about the forefather, ancestors stating all the rites to the cremation, whereas 10.85 is a marriage hymn, and 10.121 is another hymn dealing with creation and monotheism. 

Yajurveda 

• It contains 1,975 mantras and 40 adhyayas (Chapters) and is divided into two broad groups such as Black Yajur Veda- “Krishna” Veda, it suggests the unclear collection of verses, includes the two Samhitas i.e. Madhyandina Samhita and Kanva Samhita. 
• White Yajur Veda- “Shukla” Veda suggests the clear/ arranged verses, includes the Four Samhitas i.e. Taittriya Samhita, Kathaka Samhita, Kapishthala Samhita, and Maitrayani Samhita. 
• Krishna Yajurveda relates to the ‘Brahma school’ and Shukla Yajurveda is related to the ‘Aditya School’. Both the groups include types of Samhitas, which are available for us today. These Samhitas have important significance in the sacrifices. 

 
Samaveda 

• It gives knowledge about songs and is known as “Veda of melodies”. 
• It consists of 1,549 liturgical verses, 6 adhyayas embedded with the study of various primary Upanishads like ‘Chandogya Upanishad and Kena Upanishad. 
• These Upanishads have their influence over six schools of Hindu Philosophy, particularly Vedanta. 
• Sama Veda plays a crucial role in rooting the tradition of dance and music on our planet. 

Atharvaveda (Atharveda) 

• It is a collection of 730 hymns, 6000 mantras and is divided into 20 books. It is known as the ‘Veda of the Magical formulas’. 
• The study of royal rituals and duties of priests can be obtained by the Athar Veda. Its final layer includes the Brahmana texts and covers the philosophical speculations. 
• It also consists of three primary Upanishads who were influential to the various Hindu schools of philosophy. 

Mundaka Upanishad, Mandukya Upanishad, and the Prashna Upanishad are the three Primary Upanishads included in the Atharva Veda. 

Athar Veda is one of the oldest manuscripts for the Indian Ayurveda or Medicines. It has different verses, mantras indicating the cure of physical and mental diseases. It is concluded as a book of social interests, philosophical thoughts, worldly happiness, and peace. 

Upanishad

The Upanishads are Hindu philosophy books written in late Vedic Sanskrit that served as the foundation for subsequent Hindu philosophy. They are the most recent section of Hinduism’s oldest texts, and they deal with meditation, philosophy, consciousness, and ontological knowledge; previous sections of the Vedas deal with mantras, benedictions, rites, ceremonies, and sacrifices. The Upanishads, which are among the most significant works in the history of Indian religions and culture, describe a vast range of “rites, incarnations, and esoteric knowledge” that diverge from Vedic ritualism and are interpreted in many ways in later commentarial traditions.

Upanishad

• The Upaniads are ancient Indian literature that were written orally in Sanskrit between 700 BCE and 300 BCE.
• There are thirteen main Upaniads, several of which are thought to have been written by different writers and are written in a variety of styles.
• The Upaniads were written in a ritual context as part of a larger group of texts known as the Vedas, but they mark the beginning of a reasoned inquiry into a number of perennial philosophical questions concerning the nature of being, the nature of the self, the foundation of life, what happens to the self at the time of death, the good life, and ways of interacting with others.
• As a result, the Upaniads are sometimes regarded as the cradle of India’s later rich and diversified intellectual heritage.
• The Upaniads contain some of the earliest discussions about key philosophical terms like atman (the self), brahman (ultimate reality), karma, and yoga, as well as sasra (worldly existence), moksha (enlightenment), purua (person), and prakti (nature), all of which would remain central to the philosophical vocabulary of later traditions.
• The oldest is the Rig Veda, from which the Sama Veda and Yajur Veda draw directly, while the Atharva Veda takes a different path.
• However, all four have the same vision, and the Upanishads for each of them address the topics and concepts conveyed.
• The 13 Upanishads are as follows:
  • Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
  • Chandogya Upanishad
  • Taittiriya Upanishad
  • Aitareya Upanishad
  • Kausitaki Upanishad
  • Kena Upanishad
  • Katha Upanishad
  • Isha Upanishad
  • Svetasvatara Upanishad
  • Mundaka Upanishad
  • Prashna Upanishad
  • Maitri Upanishad
  • Mandukya Upanishad

Upanishads – Origin

• Some schools of thought believe the upanishads’ origin and timing are uncertain, however the first six (Brihadaranyaka to Kena) are typically dated between c. 800 and 500 BCE, with later dates for the remaining seven (Katha to Mandukya).
• Some are credited to a specific sage, while others are unattributed.
• Many conservative Hindus, on the other hand, accept the Upanishads as Shruti and think they have always existed, much like the Vedas.
• The works, in this perspective, were not so much composed as they were received and preserved.
• The Upanishads deal with ceremonial observance and one’s role in the cosmos, developing the core conceptions of the Supreme Over Soul (God) known as Brahman (who both created and is the universe) and the Atman, one’s higher self, whose purpose in life is union with Brahman.
• These texts created and continue to define Hinduism’s core beliefs, but the oldest of them also influenced the formation of Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, and, with their translation into European languages in the 19th century CE, intellectual thinking around the world.

Central Concepts of Upanishads

• The Upanishads are intellectual and religious treatises. They are the culmination of the Vedic revelation.
• The Upanishads are frequently referred to as “Vedanta.” Vedanta literally translates to “the end of Veda,” Vedasya antah, “the conclusion (Anta) and aim (Anta) of the Vedas.”
• They arrived at the conclusion of the Vedic period in terms of chronology. The Upanishads were presented to students at the conclusion of their study because they include complex discussions of fundamental philosophical questions.
• The Upanishads are known as the “end of the Veda” because they embody the Veda’s fundamental objective and include the highest and final goal of the Veda, which is Moksha or Supreme Bliss.
• Brahman was acknowledged as being incomprehensible to humans, which is why it could only be grasped in part through the Hindu gods’ avatars, but it was also known as the Source of Life that had given birth to mankind.
• An individual’s mind and soul could not comprehend Brahman logically or emotionally, but the Atman could since the Atman was Brahman; everyone has a spark of the Divine inside them, and one’s objective in life was to reconnect that spark with its source.
• The objective of life, then, is self-actualization – being fully conscious of and in touch with one’s higher self – so that one might live as nearly as possible in line with the Eternal Order of the Universe and return home to perfect unity with Brahman after death.
• If karma was not discharged properly, it resulted in pain – whether in this life or the next – and hence misery was ultimately the responsibility of the individual.
• The notion of karma was never intended to be a global deterministic law that steered a person along a predetermined path; rather, it always indicated that one’s actions had repercussions that led to predictable outcomes.
• Reincarnation was thought to be a given because if a person failed to fulfil their dharma in one lifetime, their karma would drive them to return to try again.

Importance of Upanishads

• In the evolution of Indian intellectual thinking, the Upanishads have a unique position.
• They contain the greatest authority on which India’s diverse philosophical systems are founded.
• As a result, Vedanta Philosophy is inextricably linked to the Upanishads.
• Not only the Vedanta philosopher claims trust in the Veda’s goals and objectives, but the Sankhya, Vaisheshika, Nyaya, and Yoga philosophers also claim to find some guarantee for their ideas in the Upanishads.
• The Vedas are linked to the Upanishads, which make the Vedic knowledge spectrum as full as possible.
• The Vedas and their study are frequently referenced in the Upanishads. The Gayatri, for example, is one of the Vedic hymns that can be meditated on.
• There are several Mahavakyas, or great sayings, in each of the Vedas. However, four Mahavakyas relating to four Vedas contained in the Upanishads are extremely essential, thought-provoking, and powerful.
• These express the Jiva’s and Brahman’s non-duality.
• It is difficult to comprehend Indian history and culture without first studying the Upanishads.
• The Upanishads have influenced every subsequent development of Indian philosophy and religion.

Difference between Vedas and Upanishads

Vedas	Upanishads
The Vedas were written between the years 1200 and 400 B.C.E.	The Upanishads were composed between 700 and 400 B.C.E. throughout a period of time.
The Vedas concentrated on ceremonial details, applications, and customs.	The Upanishads were concerned with spiritual enlightenment.
In Sanskrit, Vedas means “knowledge.” It’s called “Apauruseya,” which means “not of man.”	The term upanishad comes from the Sanskrit words upa (near) and shad (shade) (to sit). It comes from the idea of sitting close to the teacher’s feet.
Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda are the four Vedas.	There have been nearly 200 Upanishads unearthed.Each Upanishad is linked to a certain Veda. Katha, Kena, Isa, Mundaka, Prasna, Taittiriya, Chhandogya, Brihadaranyaka, Mandukya, Aitareya, Kaushitaki, Svetasvatara, and Maitrayani are the 14 most well-known or important Upanishads.
Each of the four Vedas is made up of separate scriptures.	The Upanishads are found at the end of each Veda. A Veda’s Upanishads are a subclass.
Samhitas (Mantras), Aranyakas (Texts on rites, sacrifices, and ceremonies), Brahmanas (it explains holy wisdom and expounds scientific knowledge of the Vedic Period), and Upanishads are the four primary text genres found in the Vedas.The three sorts of writings all dealt with life’s ceremonial components.	Upanishads are one of the four primary Vedic literary kinds.The Upanishads are philosophical and spiritual literature.Each branch of the Vedas produced Upanishads.The philosophical elements of existence are addressed in the Upanishads.

Conclusion

The Upanishads are Hindu philosophical-religious works that establish and explain the religion’s essential doctrines (also known as Sanatan Dharma, which means “Eternal Order” or “Eternal Path”). The word translates to “sit down carefully,” as in “pay close attention to what a teacher or other authority person is saying.” They are the most recent section of Hinduism’s oldest texts, and they deal with meditation, philosophy, consciousness, and ontological knowledge; previous sections of the Vedas deal with mantras, benedictions, rites, ceremonies, and sacrifices.

Puranas 

Purana is a large genre of Indian literature that covers a wide range of themes, including stories and other folklore. The Puranas are notable for the many levels of symbolism that are presented in their stories. Several of these works are named after significant Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma, and Shakti, and were originally written in Sanskrit. In both Hinduism and Jainism, the Puranic literary genre may be found. 

Puranas 

• Purana is a Sanskrit word that means “ancient.” Puranas were first created by Sage Veda-Vyasa, according to legend. 
• There are 18 Mahapuranas (great puranas) and a plethora of Upapuranas (secondary puranas). 
• The puranas’ beginnings may overlap with the Vedas to some extent, although their writing spanned the 4th and 5th century CE, and in some cases much later. 
• The puranas were mostly composed during the Gupta period, although some were produced in the early mediaeval period as well. 
• Bhagavata Purana (10th century) and Skanda Purana are two examples (14th century). 
• The Puranic literature is encyclopaedic and covers a wide range of themes, including cosmogony, cosmology, genealogy of gods, goddesses, kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, folk tales, pilgrimages, temples, medicine, astronomy, grammar, mineralogy, comedy, love stories, and theology and philosophy. 
• The Puranas’ substance is exceedingly inconsistent, and each Purana has survived in a number of manuscripts, each of which is incongruent. 
• The Hindu Maha Puranas are generally credited to “Vyasa,” although many academics believe they were written by a number of writers over time; by contrast, most Jaina Puranas may be dated and authors assigned. 

Puranas – Origin 

• Vyasa, the Mahabharata’s narrator, is credited with compiling the Puranas, according to legend. 
• According to legend, there was just one Purana in the beginning. Vyasa left his Purana Samhita to his pupil Lomaharshana, who in turn passed it on to his followers, three of whom produced their own samhitas, according to the Vishnu Purana. 
• The Mulasamhita, which includes these three as well as Lomaharshana’s, is the source of the subsequent eighteen Puranas. 
• It is impossible to assign a definite date to any Purana as a whole; the date of the recorded books’ development does not determine the Puranas’ date of origin. 
• Before being written down, they existed in an oral form. 
• The “original Purana” may have been written during the last transcription of the Vedas in the nineteenth century. 

18 Puranas 

• The Agni Purana has 15,400 verses. 
• The Srimad Bhagavata Purana has 18,000 verses. The most revered and well-known of the Puranas, it tells the story of Vishnu’s ten Avatars. Its eleventh and longest chapter recounts Krishna’s exploits, beginning with his boyhood escapades, a topic later built on by various Bhakti organisations. 
• Bhavishya Purana has 14,500 verses. 
• The Brahma Purana has 24,000 verses. 
• Brahmanda Purana has 12,000 lines, including Lalita Sahasranamam, a scripture that some Hindus repeat as prayer. 
• The Brahmavaivarta Purana has 18,000 verses. 
• The Garuda Purana has 19,000 verses. 
• Harivamsa Purana, which contains 16,000 verses; itihsa Linga Purana, which has 11,000 verses. 
• Shortest Purana is Markandeya Purana, which comprises 9,000 verses and includes Devi Mahatmyam, an essential literature for Shaktas. 
• Matsya Purana has 14,000 verses. 
• The Narada Purana has 25,000 verses. 
• Padma Purana has 55,000 verses. 
• The longest Purana is Skanda Purana, which includes 81,100 verses. 
• Surya Purana Vamana Purana (10,000 verses) 
• The Vayu Purana has 24,000 verses. 
• Vishnu Purana has 23,000 verses. 

Puranas – The Encyclopaedia 

• The Puranas are “vast, often encyclopaedic” texts from ancient and mediaeval India. 
• Some of them, such as the Agni Purana and Matsya Purana, encompass a wide range of topics, ranging from fiction to reality, practical recipes to abstract philosophy, geographic Mahatmyam to cosmetics, festivals to astronomy. 
• They were updated to keep up with the times, much like encyclopaedias, through a process known as Upabrimhana. 
• Some of the 36 main and minor Puranas, however, are more concentrated handbooks, such as the Skanda Purana, Padma Purana, and Bhavishya Purana, which deal largely with Tirtha Mahatmyam, whilst the Vayu Purana and Brahmanda Purana focus more on history, mythology, and tales. 
• The Jaina Puranas are encyclopaedic epics in the vein of the Hindu Puranas and are regarded anuyogas (expositions), but they are not considered Jain Agamas and do not have scriptural or quasi-canonical status in Jainism tradition. 

Puranas – Significance 

• Women and shudras did not have access to Vedic books throughout the later Vedic period and beyond, but Puranas became available to them, and they could read and listen to Puranas, which aided in the transmission of knowledge to the people. 
• The most common method of disseminating secular Purana information to the populace was through tale telling: 
• According to Banabhatta, he heard the legends of Vayu Puran in his hamlet as a youngster when the Puranas were recited aloud. 
• “The pouranika, the suta, and the magadha,” according to Arthashastra, were three officials appointed by a monarch to listen to the Puranas. 

Puranas – Secular Nature 

• The Puranas’ idea of time is mind-boggling. There are four eras or yugas in Hinduism: krita, treta, dvapara, and kali. 
• The six puranas – Vayu, Brahmanda, Bhagavata, Bhavisya, Matsya, and Vishnu – contain important information on ancient political history out of the eighteen primary Puranas. 
• They are referring to historical dynasties like the Haryankas, Shishunaga, Nandas, Mauryas, Shungas, Kanvas, and Andhras (Satavahanas). 
• For example, the Vishnu Purana, Matsya Purana, and Vayu Purana discuss the Mauryan period, Satavahana period, and Gupta period, respectively. 
• The Puranas shed much insight on the evolution of monarchy, the creation of the state, inter-state interactions, administrative organisation (local, judicial, civil, military, revenue), and so on. 
• The Puranas provide stories of mountains, rivers, and places that can be used to understand historical geography. 
• Example – Markandeya Purana discusses the Vindhya Ranges and the Narmada Valley area. 
• The Puranas also portray interactions between individuals from many cultural traditions. 
• Puranas provide information about the foundations, planning, naming, antiquity, growth and decay of towns and cities which are very important for the study of history of urbanisation in ancient India. 
• The Puranic records shed light on the nature of urban settlements by showing the growth of towns for political, administrative, commercial, religious or educational purposes. 
• The Puranic descriptions of Brahmanical social values like Varnashrama dharma (four-fold stages of life), caste system etc have considerable historical value. 

Differences between Vedas and Puranas 

Vedas	Puranas
Vedas are divided into four categories: The Rig Veda The Yajur Veda The Sama Veda The Atharva Veda	There are around 400,00 verses in the Maha Purana, 17 Mukhya Puranas (Major Puranas), and 18 Upa Puranas (Minor Puranas).
Each Veda is divided into four sections. The Samhitas, which deal with mantras and benedictions, The Aranyakas, which is a text on rituals, ceremonies, and symbolic sacrifices, The Brahmanas, which are commentaries on rituals and ceremonies, The Upanishads, which deal with meditation, philosophy, and spiritual knowledge are among them. The Upasana (worship), according to certain experts, are a fifth category	The Puranas’ literature is extensive and covers a wide range of themes, including but not limited to: Cosmology Genealogy Medicine Astronomy Gods and Goddesses Grammar Demigods Heroes Sages
The Vedas are classified as Shruti, which sets them apart from other texts. In Sanskrit, shruti means “that which is heard,” and it refers to Hinduism’s most authoritative and holy scriptures.	Smriti texts (meaning “that which is remembered”) include the Puranas. Despite the fact that Smriti writings lack the authority of Shruti scriptures, they are nonetheless regarded in high respect.
Since the second millennium BC, the Vedas have been passed down orally. In its textual form, the Rig Veda was created between 1500 and 1200 BC. Around 1200 BC – 900 BC, the Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas were written.	The Puranas were most likely written between the third and tenth centuries AD.
Veda Vyasa is traditionally considered as the Vedas’ compiler.	The 18 Upa Puranas are based on the work of Lomaharshana (a Ved Vyasa pupil) and his three Mulasamhita disciples.

Influences of Puranas 

• Scholars, particularly Indian scholars, have claimed that the Puranas genre of Indian literature has had the greatest influence in “culture synthesis”. 
• In weaving and integrating diverse beliefs ranging from ritualistic rites of passage to Vedantic philosophy, from fictional legends to factual history, from individual introspective yoga to social celebratory festivals, from temples to pilgrimage, from one god to another, from goddesses to tantra, from the old to the new. 
• These were open, dynamic writings that were created in a communal setting throughout time. 
• The Puranic literature encouraged the “acculturation and accommodation” of a diverse group of people, speaking different languages and belonging to different social groups, across kingdoms and traditions, igniting the syncretic “cultural mosaic of Hinduism.” 
• They influenced India’s cultural variety and serve as a written record of it. 
• In ancient and medieval India, the Puranas were an effective channel for cultural interchange and popular instruction. 
• Regional deities such as Pashupata in Vayu Purana, Sattva in Vishnu Purana, Dattatreya in Markandeya Purana, and Bhojakas in Bhavishya Purana were accepted, explained, and incorporated into these scriptures. 
• Songs, dance cultures such as Bharata Natyam in south India and Rasa Lila in northeast India, dramas, and recitations were all influenced by the Puranas’ cultural influence. 
• Puranic literature contains the stories, lunar calendar schedule, rituals, and celebrations of important Hindu cultural festivals such as Holi, Diwali, and Durga Puja. 

Conclusion 

The Sanskrit word purana means “old.” According to mythology, Sage Veda-Vyasa was the first to construct the Puranas. They are late depictions of ancient traditions that include the creation and destruction of the cosmos, genealogy of kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, and explanations of Hindu cosmology, philosophy, and geography. 

Kalidasa 

Kalidasa was an ancient Indian poet and dramatist who wrote in Classical Sanskrit. The Vedas, the Ramayaa, the Mahabharata, and the Puranas are the main sources for his plays and poetry. Three plays, two epic poems, and two shorter poems are the only works he left behind. Except for what can be deduced from his poetry and plays, very little is known about his life. Although his works cannot be precisely dated, they were most likely written before the fifth century CE. 

Kalidasa 

• Kalidasa (active late 4th-early 5th century) was a brilliant poet and playwright in classical India. 
• He unveiled the essence of a whole civilization by demonstrating the expressive and provocative heights to which the Sanskrit language is capable. 
• Kalidasa was a major literary figure in the first half of the seventh century, clearly after the great Buddhist poet Asvaghosha (1st century) (the Aihole inscription, 634). 
• Outside of India, scholars agree that Kalidasa thrived under the reign of Chandragupta II. 
• According to Hindu mythology, he embellished Vikramaditya’s court in the first century B.C. 
• Kalidasa was a court poet of a king named Vikramaditya, according to several ancient and medieval sources. 
• Around the first century BCE, a mythological monarch named Vikramditya is claimed to have ruled from Ujjain. 
• According to some researchers, the mythical Vikramaditya is not a historical character at all. 
• Other monarchs who reigned from Ujjain and used the title Vikramditya the most famous of whom are Chandragupta II and Yasodharman. 
• The most widely held belief is that Kalidsa flourished during the reign of Chandragupta II, and thus lived in the 4th to 5th centuries CE. 

Kalidasa 

Kalidasa – Early life 

• Himalayas, Ujjain, and Kalinga: Scholars say that Kalidasa resided near the Himalayas, in the Ujjain area, and in Kalinga. 
• Kashmir: Lakshmi DharKalla (1891–1953), a Sanskrit scholar and Kashmiri Pandit, determined that Kalidasa was born in Kashmir but traveled south to seek assistance from local kings. 
• Saffron plant, deodar trees, musk deer, tarns, glades, and other flora, animal, and topographical traits typical to Kashmir but not Ujjain or Kalinga are among the evidence listed in Kalidasa’s works. 
• Reference to Kashmiri traditions, such as the Kashmiri literature NilamataPurana, which is cited in Shakuntala Nikumbh. 
• According to some experts, Kalidasa was born in Uttarakhand’s Garhwal region. 

Kalidasa – Literary works 

• There are six key works that are significant. 
• Kumarasambhava (Birth of Kumara; Kumara, the Prince, was Siva’s war-god son) is an epic poem that openly tells the heavenly romance that led to Siva’s son’s birth. 
• The Raghuvamsa is another epic poem that honors Rama’s origins and existence. 
• Kalidasa’s excellent distillation and modulation of the Valmiki Ramayana may be seen in the cantos dedicated to Rama. 
• Meghaduta, a lyric “elegy” by Kalidasa, is a brief yet remarkable work that demonstrates another side of Kalidasa’s talent. 
• This masterwork narrates the story of an exiled demi divinity who, worried for his bride’s safety, contracts a monsoon thunderhead to deliver word of his safety to her in the north. 
• This book is the birthplace of a thriving genre in Sanskrit and allied Indic literature. 
• Kalidasa’s three dramas aren’t very original in terms of love stories, but the author’s command of language, setting, and detail is exceptional. 
• Despite the fact that the Malavikagnimitra is thought to be Kalidasa’s first play, it is not a young work. Because of the story, it is less rewarding than the others. 
• The theme of the human king’s love for the celestial nymph in the Vikramorvasiya has more potential for high sorrow and even tragedy, and Kalidasa, for the most part, exploits it. 
• Sakuntala is India’s most renowned heroine, appearing in Abhijnanasakuntalam. 
• The Mahabharata contains the template, but Kalidasa created the magnificent Sakuntala. 
• This drama is justifiably Kalidasa’s most famous, for here poetry and drama become inextricably linked. 
• Order, delicacy, tranquillity, cohesiveness, and balance are all present. 
• It’s fitting that this was the first literary work to introduce India to Europe in the contemporary period. 
• This drama, crafted by the culture’s greatest representative and poet, encapsulated everything that Sanskritic culture was, its celebration of the real, and its idea of itself. 
• Ritusamhaara was another excellent lyric poem he penned, this one about the seasons. 

Significance of Literary works 

• The civilization depicted in Kalidasa’s literature is that of a courtly nobility confident in its own power and dignity. 
• More than any other author, Kalidasa has done more to reconcile the ancient Brahmanic religious tradition, particularly its ceremonial concentration with Sanskrit, with the demands of a new and brilliant secular Hinduism. 
• The synthesis, which exemplifies the Gupta period‘s renaissance, did not, however, sustain its frail social foundation; with the chaos that followed the Gupta Empire’s collapse, Kalidasa became a memory of perfection that neither Sanskrit nor the Indian nobility would ever know again. 
• He also studied books on rhetoric and theatrical theory, disciplines that Hindu savants have approached with tremendous, though occasionally baffling, skill. 
• Kalidasa possessed both sophisticated and intricate philosophical theories, as well as understanding of astronomy and law. 

Conclusion 

Kalidasa was a Sanskrit poet and dramatist who is often regarded as the greatest Indian writer of all time. In a stone inscription dated 634 C.E. unearthed in Aihole in modern-day Karnataka, his name is listed with that of poet Bharavi. Rabindranath Tagore was greatly influenced by Kalidasa. Tagore’s poetry about the monsoons reflects Meghadutam’s romanticism. 

Vishakhadatta 

Vishakhadatta was a prominent Gupta-era Sanskrit poet and dramatist. In his famous historical drama Mudrarakshasa, his only surviving literary work, he mentions his father’s name as Maharaja Bhaskar Dutta. His time period is unknown, however he most likely flourished in or after the 6th century CE. 

Vishakhadatta 

• Vishakhadatta was a great Gupta-era Sanskrit poet and playwright. 
• After Mahakavi Kalidas, Vishakhadatta was a well-known Sanskrit poet and playwright. 
• He flourished during or after the 6th century. 
• In his great historical drama Mudrarakshasa, which is his only surviving work, he mentions his father’s name as Maharaja Bhaskar Dutta. 
• Apart from that, Vishakhadatta also wrote ‘Devichandraguptam,’ which is only found in fragments in Ramachandra and Gunachandra’s Natya Darpan. 
• It also survived in the form of quotations in Sagarnandi’s Nataka Lakshana Ratnakosha and King Bhoj’s Shringar Prakash and Saraswati Kanthabharana. 
• Vishakhadatta was different from other playwrights. 
• When compared to both Kalidasa and Banabhatta in philosophical learning, his simple passages have a profound impact on readers. 
• He wrote two powerful plays in Sanskrit with beautiful language. 

 
Vishakhadatta – Literary works 

• Mudrarakshasa is a Sanskrit historical play with seven acts. It is based on the life of Mauryan King Chandragupta and his struggle to become king. 
• Although there are fragments of another work attributed to him, Mudrarakshasa is his only lasting play. 
• In the Mudrarakshasa, a play set during the Maurya dynasty, he has focused on historical facts. 
• The play depicts King Chandragupta Maurya‘s rise to power in India. Maharaja Bhaskar Dutta and Maharaja Vateshwar Data, his father and grandfather, are also featured in this book and spark interest. 
• He claimed that he was born into a princely family and that he was involved in political administration, at least on a local level. 
• Another play by Vishakhadatta is Devichandraguptam, which is about Chandragupta, the Gupta ruler. 
• It tells how Chandragupta overcame the oppression of Saka rulers and his inept brother Ramagupta to become king of his kingdom. 

Conclusion 

Vishakhadatta was a well-known Sanskrit poet and dramatist during the Gupta period. Mudrarakshasa, a political thriller written in the sixth century CE by Vishakadatta, is set during an intriguing period in Indian history. In philosophical learning, his simple passages have a profound impact on readers when compared to Kalidasa and Banabhatta. He wrote two powerful Sanskrit plays with lovely language. 

Buddhist Literature 

Buddhist literature and texts are religious works belonging to the Buddhist faith. The oldest Buddhist writings were not written down until several centuries after Gautama Buddha’s death. Buddhist writings are classified in a variety of ways. Western academics use the term “canonical” to refer to Buddhism in a variety of ways. These religious works were composed in a variety of languages, writing systems, and procedures. 

Buddhist Literature – Background 

• During the Buddha’s lifetime, Buddhist literature was written in his native Indian dialect, rather than Vedic Sanskrit, which had become unintelligible to the general public 
• He also urged his monks to spread his teachings in the vernacular. 
• The Buddhist canon was formed and passed down orally after his death, and it was written down in numerous versions in the 1st and 2nd centuries BC. 
• The Vinaya or monastic regulations, the Sutra (Pali Sutta) or Buddha discourses, and the Abhidharma (Pali Abhidhamma) or scholastic metaphysics are the three primary sections, known as pitakas. 
• The Jataka, or stories of the Buddha’s former incarnations, are also featured, many of which are non-Buddhist in origin. 
• The Sri Lankan Theravada school’s Pali translation of the canon, written 29–17 BC, is the only full Indian version now existing. 
• North Indian Buddhist writings were written in a vernacularized version of Sanskrit. 
• All schools of Buddhism developed a substantial volume of commentary and philosophy, and Mahayana Buddhism produced its own class of sutras. 

Buddhist Literature 

• Prakrit and Pali were the post-Vedic languages spoken by Indians. 
• Prakrit is a catch-all name for any language that differs from the mainstream one, Sanskrit. Pali is an old Prakrit dialect that combines several dialects. 
• Lord Buddha delivered his discourses in Pali, and as a result, early Buddhist literature was written in Pali. 
• There are two major categories of Buddhist literature available in India. 
• Prakrit and Pali literature 
• Sanskrit literature 

Prakrit and Pali literature 

• Suttavibhanga, also known as the Patimokkha Sutta, provides the regulations for completely ordained monks known as bhikkhus (Maha Vibhanga) and fully ordained nuns known as bhikkhunis (Maha Vibhanga). 
• Khandhakas – consist of two sections: the Mahavagga and the Cullavagga, and include laws on the path of life in the monastic order. 
• The Mahavagga is about the Buddha’s awakening and his great disciples, while theCullavagga is about the First and Second Buddhist Councils, as well as the establishment of a community of Buddhist nuns. 
• Parivara – said to have been written by a Ceylonese monk, it is a handbook of instruction on the contents of the Vinaya Pitaka. 
• The Digha Nikaya, or Lengthy Collection, contains 34 long Suttas. The Mahaparinibbana Sutta is the most important of these because it details the Buddha’s final days. 
• Majjhima Nikaya is a collection of 152 suttas in the form of middle-sized reports on instructions. 
• The Samyutta Nikaya is a collection of instructions arranged into groups of 56 suttas. 
• Anguttara Nikaya is a gradual or “by one limb more” collection in which the first chapter deals with things that happen only once, the second chapter deals with things that happen twice, and so on. 
• Khadduka Nikaya is a collection of little pieces, containing writings of various characters that are scattered literary works. 

Khadduka Nikaya 

• The Khuddaka Nikaya contains some well-known literary works, such as 
• The Khuddakapatha, a prayer book that is included in the Khuddaka Nikaya Dhammapada, comprises 423 gnomic stanzas that are immensely popular among the people. 
• Udana is a compilation of the Buddha’s compassionate remarks. It includes the well-known fable “Blind Men and Elephant.” 
• Itivuttaka – literally “thus hath been spoken” – is a collection of maxims uttered by the Buddha to his students. 
• Sutta Nipata is an anthology of archaic literary works. 
• The grandeur of celestial palaces where the gods live is described in Vimanavatthu. 
• Petavatthu recounts the agonizing existence of the departed spirits who must atone for their crimes. 
• Thera and Thei-gathas are monks’ and nuns’ songs that are particularly engaging owing to their lyric excellence. 

Canonical Literature 

• Other important canonical Buddhist literary works are, 
• The Jatakas are accounts of the Buddha’s previous lives. There are 547 poems in all. The Khuddaka Nikaya mentions them. 
• They are very similar to folklore literature. They are known as the Jatakamala in Sanskrit. In Khmer, they are referred to as cietak, and in Chinese, they are referred to as Sadok. 
• Niddesa or Mahaniddesa – a commentary on the Suttanipata’s first and second chapters. 
• Patisambhidamagga – deals with knowledge and, according to its contents, can be regarded as Abhidhamma literature. 
• Buddhavamsa is a verse legend. It tells the story of the lives and acts of the 24 Buddhas who came before Gautama. 
• The holy legends are known as Apadanas. They describe the actions of young monks and nuns who have acquired the level of Arhats. 
• Cariyapitaka is a collection of 35 Jatakas in metrical form. It indicates that Bodhisattva obtained the 10 paramitas in each of his past lives. 

Non Canonical Literature 

• Aside from the canonical literature, Pali has a plethora of non-canonical literature. Some examples are as follows: 
• Milindapanha translates as “Milinda’s Questions.” It contains a conversation between Milinda, the Graeco-Bactrian King Menander, and the monk Nagasena about Buddhist issues. It was first written in Sanskrit. 
• Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa are two well-known Ceylonese histories. 
• The Mahavamsa is recognised as the world’s longest uninterrupted historical narrative and deals with the royal dynasties of the Indian subcontinent, including Sri Lanka. 
• The Dipavamsa is concerned with the arrival of the Buddha’s teachings and preachers in Sri Lanka. 

Sanskrit Literature 

• With the rise of Mahayana Buddhism, Sanskrit literature gained prominence in Buddhism. 
• However, the Hinayana school produced some Sanskritic works as well. 
• Mahavastu is widely regarded as the most important work of the Hinayana school. It is a compilation of stories written at various times throughout history. 
• However, by adding facts about miracles and the Buddha’s prior lifetimes, it also demonstrates some Mahayanic philosophy. 
• Lalitavistara is regarded as one of the most revered Mahayanic writings. It is about the Buddha’s biography. 
• Asvaghosa’s Buddhacharita is an epic-style Sanskrit text. It tells the story of Gautama Buddha’s life. 
• Apart from Buddhism, the Mahavibhasa Sastra, written by Vasumitra, is linked to the Hindu philosophies of Samkhya and Vaisheshika. 
• Udanavarga – It includes verses attributed to the Buddha and his disciples. 
• Aside from the aforementioned literature, there is also Vajrayana Buddhist literature, which is primarily a component of canonical Tibetan Buddhism. 
• They are referred to as Buddhist Tantras. They are classified as follows: 
• Kriya tantras – ceremonial acts are the centre of these tantras. 
• Charya tantras – centred on worship of Buddha vairocana (celestial Buddha) 
• Yoga tantras, like Vairocana Anuttara tantras, emphasise mental change rather than ceremonial deeds. 

Buddhist Texts 

• The Buddha’s teachings were delivered orally. He taught for 45 years, tailoring his lessons to the needs of the students. 
• The teachings were learned by the Sangha, and group recitations were held at festivals and special occasions. 
• In 483 BC, the teachings were rehearsed and validated in the First Council, after which they were separated into Three Pitakas. 
• Around 25 BCE, his teachings were written down in Pali. 
• Three Pitakas – 

• Vinaya Pitaka 
• Sutta Pitaka 
• Abhidhamma Pitaka 

• The Vinaya Pitaka contains standards of behavior and discipline for monks and nuns in their monastic lives. 
• The main teaching or Dhamma of Buddha is contained in the Sutta Pitaka. It is divided into five collections or Nikayas. 

• Digha Nikaya 
• Majjhima Nikaya 
• Samyutta Nikaya 
• Anguttara Nikaya 
• Khuddaka Nikaya 

• The Abhidamma Pitaka is a philosophical examination and systematization of monks’ teaching and scholarly work. 
• Divyavadana, Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Milind Panha, and other key Buddhist scriptures. 

Jataka Stories 

• The Jataka stories are a large collection of Indian literature that details Gautama Buddha’s former lives as both a human and an animal. 
• The future Buddha may emerge as a monarch, an outcast, a divinity, or an elephant, but he demonstrates some virtue in every shape he takes. 
• Jataka stories frequently have a large cast of people that interact and get themselves into various types of difficulties, after which the Buddha figure intervenes to fix all of the problems and bring the story to a joyful conclusion. 
• The Jatakas are a textual section of the Pali Canon in Theravada Buddhism, found in the Sutta Pitaka’s Khuddaka Nikaya. 
• Jataka might also refer to a conventional commentary on the text. The stories are believed to have been written between 300 BC and 400 AD. 
• Several stupas in northern India are claimed to commemorate sites from the Jataka stories, according to Chinese traveller Xuanzang. For example stupa in Pushkalavati. 

Conclusion 

These religious works were composed in a variety of languages, writing systems, and procedures. It was thought that memorising, reciting, and duplicating the passages was spiritually beneficial. Buddhists continued to duplicate them by hand as a spiritual activity even after printing was developed and adopted by Buddhist institutions. Asian Buddhist institutions were in the forefront of the adoption of Chinese bookmaking technology such as paper and block printing, which were typically used on a massive scale, in order to preserve these scriptures. 

Jain Literature 

The literature of the Jain religion is referred to as Jain literature. It is a vast and ancient literary tradition that was originally passed down orally. The canonical Jain Agamas are written in Ardhamagadhi, a Prakrit (Middle-Indo Aryan) language, and contain the oldest surviving material. Later Jain monks wrote various commentaries on these canonical texts. Later works were written in other languages as well, such as Sanskrit and Maharashtri Prakrit. 
The canons of the Digambara and Svetambara orders predominate in Jain literature. 

Jain Literature and Texts 

• Jain monks wrote in a variety of languages in addition to Prakrit and Ardha Magadhi, depending on the era, region, and patrons who sponsored them. During the Sangam Age in south India, they wrote in Tamil. 
• In addition to Sanskrit, Shauraseni, Gujarati, and Marathi, they wrote in Sanskrit, Shauraseni, Gujarati, and Marathi. 
• Canonical or religious books, known as Jain Agamas or Agam, and non-canonical literary works can be broadly separated into two categories known as Niryuktis and Samhitas. 

 
Jain Agamas 

• They are sacred books that are supposed to contain the Jain tirthankaras’ teachings. 
• They are claimed to have been compiled by the Gandharas, Mahavira’s direct disciples. For Svetambaras, these scriptures are crucial. 
• The present Angas are claimed to have been re-compiled in the mid-5th century AD in Vallabhi (Gujarat) by a council of Svetambaras sect monks. 
• The Digamabara sect thinks that the original teachings were lost a long time ago and does not recognise the authority of the Agamas written in Valabhi. 
• Agamas is a collection of 46 texts. 
• There are twelve Angas, twelve Upangas, ten Prakirnakas, four Mulasutras, six Chedasutras, and two Chulika Sutras. 
• They were written in the Prakrit language Ardha-Magadhi. 
• The Angas instill regard for all forms of life, rigorous vegetarianism, asceticism, compassion, and nonviolence in their followers. There are 12 Angas in total. 

• Acharanga Sutra: Oldest agama. 
• Sutrakritanga: describes code of conduct for Jain monks, 
• metaphysics etc 
• Sthananga Sutra. 
• Samavayanga Sutra: discussion on essence of Jainism, 
• astronomy, mathematics, etc. 
• Vyakhya Prajnapti or Bhagavati Sūtra: 
• Jnat Dharma Katha. 
• Upasakadasa 
• Antardasha 
• Anuttaraupapatikadasah. 
• Prasnavyakaranani: Description of sins. 
• Vipakasruta: stories and illustrations. 
• Desativada: contém 14 Purvas. 

• The Karmaprabhrita (debate on Karma) or Shatkhandagama and the Kashayaprabhrita were both given canonical status by the Digambaras. 

Non‑agam Literature 

• Commentary and explanations of Agam literature, as well as independent works gathered by ascetics and scholars, make up non-agam literature. 
• They are written in Prakrit, Sanskrit, Apabhramsa, Old Marathi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannad, Tamil, German, and English, among other languages. 

Niryuktis 

• Bhadrabahu is said to have written three of Jainism’s sacred books, as well as the Niryuktis, which are short commentary on the original 12 sacred books. 
• According to some sources, Bhadrabahu fled to Nepal during the famine, while others claim he stayed in Mysore. 

Samhitas 

• For a better grasp of Jaina law, the Bhadrabahu Samhita was used. 
• The goal of this research is to bring the rights of women in the ancient Jain era to light and see if they have been accurately represented in the public eye or if arbitrary findings and ignorant misinterpretations have created a misleading picture. 

Other Notable Jain Texts and Authors 

Bhadrabahu 

• Bhadrabahu (3rd century BC) was Chandragupta Maurya’s instructor and one of the greatest Jain monks. 
• He penned the Kalpa Sutra and the revered Uvasaggaharam Stotra (Biographies of Jain Tirthankars). 
• The Digambara sect was founded by him. 

Acharya Kundkund 

• The Jain philosophy is discussed in Acharya Kundkund’s Samayasara and Niyamasara. 

  Samanta Bhadra 

• Around the second century AD, Samanta Bhadra wrote Ratna Karanda Sravakachara (Life of a Jaina Householder) and Aptamimansa. 

Ilango Adigal 

• Silappadikaram by Ilango Adigal regarded as one of Tamil literature’s greatest epics composed in the second century AD, is a moralistic discourse. 

• It follows Kannagi, who, after losing her husband to a miscarriage of justice at the Pandyan Dynasty’s court, exacts her retribution on his empire. 

Tirutakkatevar 

• Civaka Cintamani by Tirutakkatevar is also one of Tamil literature’s epics. 

Umasvati 

• Umasvati’s Tattvartha-sutra (1st-2nd century AD) is a significant Sanskrit treatise on logic, epistemology, ethics, and astronomy written by Umasvati. 

Jinasena 

• Jinasena was a Digamabara monk who lived in the 8th and 9th centuries. Maha Purana and Harivamsa Purana are two of his works. 
• He was a student of Virasena, another well-known Jain monk. 

Haribhadra Suri 

• A Jain author named Haribhadra Suri (6th century AD) wrote in Sanskrit. 

 Hemachandra Suri (12th century) 

• A great scholar named Hemachandra Suri (12th century) created grammars in Sanskrit and Prakrit. 
• Jain monks penned the ancient Tamil scripture Nalatiyar. 

Contributions of Jain Literature 

• The development of numerous Indian languages is said to have been aided by Jain literature. 
• Apart from Hindi, Jaina literary works are available in Sanskrit, Marathi, Gujarati, Kannada, Tamil, Malayalam, Rajasthani, and Marwari. 
• The Jaina literary works gave birth to Kannada literature. 

• Adi Pampa’s Vikramarjuna-Vijaya is known as the Pampa-Bharata. 
• Subhas Chandra wrote the Pandava Purana. 
• Jinasena wrote the Harivamsapurana. 

• Banarasidasa’s Ardhakathanaka is the earliest autobiography in Braj Bhasha, which is considered the forerunner to Hindi. 
• Many Jaina literary works, such as Kahas and grammar, were composed in Apabhramsa. 
• Apabhramsa is thought to be the forerunner of numerous Gangetic plains Indian languages. 
• Shauraseni contains some of the earliest Jaina literature, which contributed to the formation of languages such as Gujarati and Marwari. 

Important Learning Centres Related to Jainism 

• Before declining, the universities of Valabhi and Kalinga were prominent centers of study for Jains. 
• Jain monks wrote significantly in Kannada between the 9th and 12th centuries. The famed Jain writer’s Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna are the three pearls of Kannada literature. 
• With the rebirth of Hinduism and the spread of Lingayats in Karnataka, Jainism’s popularity waned, and literary output diminished after the 12th and 13th centuries. 

Conclusion 

Agamas is a collective word for all Jain writings. They’re written in Ardhamagadhi, a Prakrit dialect that’s akin to Pali, the Buddhist language. The Tirthankaras’ sermons were codified by their students in subsequent times and are contained in the Jain Agamas. Because the majority of the early disciples were missionaries, they chose to codify the Tirthankaras’ discourses in common man’s vernacular in order to promote the Jaina philosophy and teachings to the masses. 

Dravidian Literature 

Dravidian Literature contains works in four major Dravidian languages: Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, and Malayalam. Tamil is thought to be the oldest of these four languages, and it is said to be very close to Sanskrit, particularly in terms of grammar and word borrowing. The classical works, or Sangam literature, are the most well-known in Tamil. 

Tamil (Sangam) Literature 

• ‘Sangam’ means a fraternity, and this literature was extremely popular among the general public. 
• This literature is a collection of works that includes approximately 2381 poems attributed to 473 poets, as well as a corpus of literature written by 102 poets who remain anonymous. 
• Men and women from various social classes were among the poets. 
• The literary tradition was so popular that the period between 300 BC and 300 AD, when the majority of these were composed and compiled, is commonly referred to as the Sangam period. 
• There are two major schools of Sangam literature: 

• Aham/agam – It is the ‘inner field,’ which focuses on the abstract discussion of human aspects such as love, sexual relations, and so on. 
• Puram – It is the ‘outer field,’ which discusses human experiences such as social life, ethics, valor, and customs, among other things. 

• This literature is known as ‘Sangam’ because the kingdom of Pandya organized assemblies to which poets, bards, and writers from all over South India would flock. 
• These gatherings were known as ‘Sangamas,’ and the literature produced during these gatherings was known as Sangam literature. 
• Over a 600-700-year period, three Sangams were organized. 

Sangam	Kingdom	Place of Organisation	Chairman	Books
First or Head	Pandya	Madurai	Agastya or Shiva	There is no surviving book. Grammar was Agattiyam.
Second or Middle Sangam period	Pandya	Kapatapuram	Initially, Agastya was in charge, and then his disciple Tolkappiyar took over.	Tolkappiyam was composed of approximately 2,000 poems. Tolkappiyam is a Tamil grammar textbook that explains the inflection and syntax of words and sentences as well as the classification of habitats, animals, plants, and humans.
Third	Pandya	Madurai	Nakkirar	The majority of the existing Sangam literature corpus was written.

• It is also worth noting that in the extant Sangam literature, approximately 30,000 lines of poetry have been arranged in eight anthologies known as Ettuttokoi. It was further divided into: 

• Patinenkil Kanakku (eighteen lower collections) is the older and more historically significant group, and Pattupattu(the ten songs). 

• Thiruvallurar, a well-known and revered Tamil saint contributed the ‘Kural’ to Sangam literature. 
• Avvaiyar is another well-known female saint who contributed to Sangam literature. 
• The Tolkappiyam was written to elaborate on the finer points of Tamil grammar and poetry. 
• Like the twin Sanskrit epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, Tamil has two major texts written in the sixth century AD, namely Silappadikaram (story of an anklet) written by Ilango Adigal. 
• Manimekalai (the story of Manimekalai) is the second text written by Sattanar. 
• These texts are about Tamil society and the economic and political changes that were taking place at the time. 
• The final turning point occurred during the early medieval period when Vaishnava Bhakti sentiments began to pervade Tamil literature. 
• Texts written between the seventh and twelfth centuries were primarily devotional. 
• Several texts were written in Tamil-speaking regions by the twelve Alvars or saint poets who were immersed in God’s devotion. 

• Andal, a woman, was one of the Alvar saints. 

• The Nayanars, or those who sang Shaivism’s praise, were another important Bhakti group. 
• Aside from these, two major poets were known as Periya Puranam and Kambaramayanam were well-known in secular Tamil writing. 

Malayalam Literature 

• This language is most commonly spoken in Kerala and its surrounding areas. 
• Although linguists argue that the language originated in the 11th century, it developed a corpus of literature rich enough to be called an independent language within a span of four hundred years. 
• Kokasandisan and Bhasa Kautilya, a commentary on Arthashastra, are two major Malayalam works from the medieval period. 
• Ramacharitam, an epic poem written by Cheeraman in the 13th century, is another significant literary work in Malayalam. 
• Ezhuthachan, a staunch supporter of the Bhakti movement, is regarded as the father of Malayalam literature. 

Telugu Literature 

• Linguists believe Nannaya (11th century) was the first Telugu poet. 
• Several great works have been written in Telugu, but they reached their pinnacle during the Vijayanagara period, also known as the golden age of Telugu literature. 
• Nachana Somanatha, a well-known court poet of King Bukka I, composed one of the most successful works during this period, titled Uttaraharivamsam. 
• Not only were court poets producing exceptional literature, but kings such as Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529) were also producing exceptional poetry titled Amuktamalyada. 
• During Krishnadevaraya’s reign, his court was attended by eight learned literary figures. They were known as ashtadiggajas. 
• Some of them, in particular, deserve special attention: 

Poet	Work
Allasani Peddana (also known as Andhra Kavita pitamaha)	Manucharitam
Nandi Thimmana	Parijathapaharanam
Tenali Ramakrishna	Panduranga Mahatmayam
Ramaraja Bhushanudu (also known as Bhattumurti)	Vasucharitram Narasabhupaliyam Harishchandra Nalopakhyanam
Madayyagari Mallana	Rajashekharacharitra (about the love and war of the King Rajasekhara of the kingdom of Avanti)
Ayyalaraju Ramabhadrudu	Ramabhyudayam Akalakathasara

Kannada Literature 

• The first foray into Kannada literature was made by Jain scholars. 
• The best example of a Jain-influenced text is Madhava’s Dharmanathapurana, a biography of the fifteenth Tirthankara. 
• Several other scholars, including Uritta Vilasa, wrote Dharma Parikshe about the Jain teachings of the time. 
• Kavirajamarga, written by Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I in the tenth century, is one of the earliest recorded Kannada texts. He was also a Rashtrakuta king of great power. 
• There were many great scholars in Kannada, but the ‘ratnatraya’ or ‘three gems’ were unparalleled. The ratnatraya was made up of three poets named – Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna. 
• Pampa, also known as the “Father of Kannada,” wrote two of his most famous works, Adipurana and Vikramarjuna Vijaya, in the tenth century. 
• Pampa, known for his mastery of the rasa used in poetic compositions, was assigned to the court of Chalukya Arikesari. 
• The second gem, Ponna, wrote a well-known treatise called Shanti Purana, and the third gem, Ranna, wrote Ajitanatha Purano. These two poets were attached to Rashtrakuta king Krishna III’s court. 
• Although Kannada became a full-fledged language by the tenth century, the growth of Kannada literature has been closely linked to the Vijayanagara empire’s patronage. 
• Sarvajna, who wrote tripadi, was given the title of people’s poet. 
• Even more remarkable is Honnamma, the first poetess of some renown in Kannada who wrote Hadibadeya Dharma (Duty of a Devout Wife). 
• Other major works in Kannada literature include: 

Poet/Author	Texts
Harishvara	Harishchandra Kavya Somanatha Charita
Bandhuvarma	Harivamshabhyudaya Jiva Sambodhana
Rudra Bhata	Jagannathavijaya
Andayya	Madana Vijaya or Kabbigara Kava (First pure Kannada text which did not have any Sanskrit word)
Kesirja	Shabdamanidarpana (Grammar book)
Mallikarjuna	Suktisudharnava
Narahari	Tarave Ramayana (The first story on Rama was inspired by the Valmiki Ramayana and written entirely in Kannada.)
Lakshamisha	Jaimini Bharata (It is also called Kamata-Karicutavana-Chaitra)

Conclusion 

Dravidian languages, particularly Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, and Malayalam, have a rich literary legacy that has been passed down to us since the beginning of the Christian era. The antiquity of Tamil Sangam literature may extend even further back to a few centuries before the arrival of the Christian era. It was named after the Sangam academies that flourished during that period under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings of Madurai. Eminent scholars gathered at the sangams to serve as censors, and the best literature was rendered in the form of anthologies. These literary works were among the first examples of Dravidian literature. 

Medieval Literature 

Medieval literature has emerged from different trends during the medieval period, influencing the languages and dialects that arose. Local differences in Prakrit became more pronounced around 1000 A.D., which later became known as Apabhramsa, and this resulted in the modern Indian languages taking shape and being born. These languages took on different linguistic characteristics as a result of their regional, linguistic, and ethnic environments. The introduction of Persian as the language of the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal courts was a significant change. During this time, Hindi also evolved from the ancient apabhramsa language. 

 
Persian Literature 

• Although the Persian language has roots as old as Sanskrit, it arrived in India with the arrival of Turks and Mongols in the 12th century. 
• During their reign, Persian became the court’s language of communication. Amir Khusrau Dehlavi is a great Persian poet (Amir Khusrau of Delhi). 
• Aside from his Diwan (collection of Persian poetry), he also wrote Nuh Sipihr and the tragic love poem Masnavi Duwal Rani Khizr Khan. 
• Zia-ud din Barani was a leading historian of the time, and he wrote Tarikh-e-Firuz Shahi. 
• Minhajus-Siraj was another well-known historian. 
• There are several travel accounts written by famous travelers such as Ibn Batuta (a Moroccan traveler) that explain the socio-political situation of the time. 
• During the Mughal era, the production and dissemination of Persian literature skyrocketed. 
• Tuzuk-I-Babari, the autobiography of Mughal emperor Babar, was written in Turkish and contains important information about the Mughal conquest of India. 
• Tuzuk-I-Jahangiri was one of the most important sources about Jahangir’s reign. 
• Humayun-nama, written by Humayun’s half-sister, Gulbadan Begum, is another important work that recounts his life and struggles for the throne. 
• The greatest emperor of this period was Akbar, and the best examples of literature from this period are Ain-e Akbari and Akbarnama, written by his court historian Abul Fazl. 
• He had several Sanskrit texts, including the Ramayana, Bhagwat Gita, and several Upanishads, translated into Persian. 
• The Mahabharata, which was translated into Persian as Razmnama, is one major example. 
• Hamzanama, a highly illustrated work from this period, depicts the story of the mythical Persian hero, Amir Hamza 
• During this time, Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote Padmavat. 
• Badauni, who wrote on the ethics of political rule, and Faizi, considered a master of Persian poetry, were two other major writers of this period. 
• Several texts were written during Shah Jahan’s reign, particularly those about the emperor, such as Inayat Khan’s Shah Jahan-nama. 
• During Aurangzeb’s reign, several satirists, including Mir Jafar Zatalli, published their Kulliyat (collection of verses). 
• Texts like Tabqat-i-Alamgiri help us understand the eighteenth century. 
• Abdul Hamid Lahori wrote Padshahnama. It is a story about Shah Jahan. 

 
Urdu Literature 

• Linguists argue that Urdu arose from the interaction of Persian and Hindi, particularly in Turkish army barracks. 
• Amir Khusrau also wrote several texts in Urdu, which was still in its infancy at the time. 
• The grammar is based on Hindi, and the form and script are based on Persian. 
• It was originally known as Dakkani because it was used by the Bahamani states of Ahmedabad, Golconda, Bijapur, and Berar (southern). 
• Mirza Ghalib is a great Urdu poet who wrote Diwan (collection of poetry) in Urdu. 
• Sauda, Dard, and Mir Taqi Mir were among the other Urdu poets. 
• Iqbal, the author of Bang-i-Dara in the twentieth century, was a major figure in Urdu literary writing. He is best known for writing the popular nationalistic song ‘Saare Jahan se achcha.’ 
• Apart from the last Mughal emperors, such as Bahadur Shah Zafar, who also wrote in Urdu, the Nawabs of Awadh supported several Urdu-writing scholars. 
• Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan, a modernizer who wrote several didactic and nationalist texts in Urdu and English in the twentieth century, gave it new life. 

Hindi Literature 

• Between the seventh and fourteenth centuries, Apabhramsa, which evolved from Prakrit, gave rise to Hindi as we know it today. 
• The Bhakti movement, which shunned the use of Sanskrit because it was the language of the Brahmins and common people did not use it, gave the language its greatest boost. 
• As a result, they began writing in the language of the people, and from the twelfth century onwards, we see a significant increase in regional languages such as Bengali, Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati, and so on. 
• For a long time, Hindi literature was overshadowed by its Sanskrit forefathers, but Prithviraj Raso was the first Hindi book, documenting Prithviraj Chauhan’s life and challenges. 
• The majority of the work is poetry by Bhakti writers such as Kabir, who is famous for his dohas (couplets) that are still used by ordinary Indians today. 
• Tulsidas wrote couplets in Braj that were peppered with Persian. He achieved immortality through the writing of Ramcharitmanas, one of the most revered Hindu texts. 
• Lord Krishna’s life was also the subject of several medieval poets, including Surdas, who wrote Sur Sagar about Krishna’s childhood and adolescent affairs with the gopis. 
• Rahim, Bhushan, and Raskhan wrote about their devotion to Lord Krishna as well. 
• Mirabai is also known as the woman who gave up everything for Lord Krishna and wrote Bhakti poetry for him. 
• Satsai from Bihar is also well-known in this regard. 

Conclusion 

The spread of Hinduism, in particular, resulted in a large amount of religious literature, often dedicated to the deities Rama and Krishna. This was bhakti (devotional religion) literature, based on the importance of a loving relationship between the worshipper and God. Meanwhile, seasonal and festival-themed folk poetry was passed down from generation to generation and is still recited today. 

Trends in Medieval literature 

Medieval literature is a broad term that refers to virtually all written works produced in Europe and elsewhere during the Middle Ages. Religious and commercial works were included in the literature of the time. It is a complicated and rich field of research, similar to modern literature, ranging from the utterly sacred to the ebullient profane and reaching all points. Literature is frequently classified according to its nation of birth, language, and genre. Literary works were initially written in Latin until poets started writing in the vernacular. As far back as the seventh century CE. To persuade overall literacy, Alfred the Great popularised vernacular literature in the Kingdom of Wessex, and other countries followed suit. 

Language 

Even outside Europe, mediaeval literature was composed in various languages, including Part of the section, Chinese Syrian, Coptic, Chinese, Japanese, and Arabic. 

Greek with Old Church Slavonic became the primary written language in Eastern Europe attributed to the dominance of both the Eastern Roman Empire and the Eastern Orthodox Church. Because Latin has been the speech of both the Roman Catholic Church, which ruled Central and Western Europe, and because the Church was essentially the only source of knowledge, Latin was the shared language for mediaeval literature in Western Europe. Even in portions of Europe that have not been Romanized, this was the situation.  

Early Childhood Development 

Beowulf (7th-10th century CE) is the first work of mediaeval English literature. However, it is likely that the story was known considerably earlier and passed down orally before it was written down. The folktale, which was a story repeated in front of an audience, probably with the narrator acting out separate parts, evolved naturally into mediaeval vernacular literature. The poetry of other civilisations follows the same trend of growth.  

Dramatic histories and fables are examples of other types of literature. 

The Church primarily used drama as a teachable moment in the Middle Ages. Morality performances, mysteries plays, and liturgy play taught uneducated audiences how to think and act appropriately. Passion plays, which depict Jesus Christ’s agony, execution, and rebirth, became favourite Easter entertainments, while morality plays were performed all year. The most well-known of that is Ordinary guy (c. 1495 CE), who relates the story of a dying man who has no one to follow him to paradise but his good actions.  

Mediaeval Indian literature 

Various causes affected mediaeval Indian literature, with Muslim and Hindu religions dominating the scene. In India, the Middle Ages were characterised by repeated change. Ordinary life in the Middle Ages was highly complex and constantly changing. The continual stream of migrant populations brings a diverse system of assumptions, rituals, habits, and lives, igniting large swaths of India. The end product of this period was a vivid kaleidoscope of literature and language that reflected and replicated the theme of rivalry between two dominating religions: Hindus and Islamic. Mediaeval Indian literature was entirely based on these ideas, and as a result, it developed its different meaning. 

Mediaeval literature Examples 

It’s vital to realise that this period’s literary masterpieces aren’t alike. They were written by a wide range of authors throughout thousands of years. So rather than studying the Middle Ages’ works world in general, it’s advisable to focus on the many literary genres and examples of a few of the mediaeval literature examples of each. 

• Romances with Alexander 

These are works centred on Alexander The Great’s life and exploits. 

• Verse with Alliteration 

The alliterative verse is used in several very sound works of literature from this period. 

• Drama in the Middle Ages 

The genre of mediaeval drama encompasses any literary works intended for a stage production. 

• Geste’s Chanson 

These are narrative poems that tell stories of brave acts of bravery. 

• Arthurian Literature 

Arthurian Literature Arthurian literature has been one of the period’s most enduring genres. 

Conclusion 

Any work published in Latin or the colloquial between c. 476 and 1500 CE is considered mediaeval literature, including philosophy, theological treatises, legal documents, and acts of imagination. However, the word is more narrowly defined to include works of poetry, theatre, romances, epic prose, and history published in the vernacular. It might seem strange to discover history mixed in with fiction; keep in mind that many Middle Ages ‘ accounts contain aspects of mythology, fantasy, and legend, and they were, in some instances, entirely the work of imaginative writers. 

Modern Literature 

The phase of Modern literature is also known as Adhunik Kaal Sahitya. It is a term mostly used in Hindi. Although Hindi became one of the major languages in Northern India, several other languages, such as Bengali, Odia, Assamese, Rajasthani, Gujarati, and so on also made their mark. 

Hindi Literature 

• The focus of literature shifted with the arrival of the British. 
• This shift was especially noticeable in Hindi prose writing, where there was a desire to return to the classics and be inspired by Sanskrit. 
• This zeal was combined with nationalistic zeal. 
• In the 1850s, Bharatendu Harishchandra wrote his most famous drama, Andher Nagari (City of Darkness), which became a major play and has been reproduced several times. 
• Bharat Durdasha is another well-known nationalist work. 
• Another significant writer from this era is Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, after whom an entire period of Hindi writing is named. 
• There are four subsections in the modern period of Hindi known as Adhunik kaal: 

Yug	Time Period
Bhartendu Yug	1868-1893
Dwivedi Yug	1893-1918
Chhayavad Yug	1918-1837
Contemporary Period	1937-today

• Swami Dayanand spearheaded the movement to make Hindi the national language, which would connect all regions. Although he wrote extensively in Gujarati, Satyartha Prakash is his most well-known work in Hindi. 
• Several Hindi authors, including Munshi Prem Chand, Surya Kant Tripathi ‘Nirala,’ and Maithili Sharan Gupt, challenged societal norms. 
• Prem Chand wrote many anthologies in Hindi and Urdu, and some of his best-known works include Godan, Bade Bhhaiya, and others. 
• Sumitranandan Pant, Ramdhari Singh ‘Dinkar,’ and Harivansha Rai Bachchan, who wrote Madhushala, are other notable Hindi writers. 
• Mahadevi Verma was a well-known female Hindi writer of the twentieth century. She was awarded the Padma Vibhushan in Hindi for her writing and how it highlighted the plight of women in society. 

 
Bengali, Odia, and Assamese Literature 

Bengali Literature 

• Bengali literature developed alongside Urdu and Hindi in the twentieth century. 
• The establishment of the Baptist Mission Press in Serampore, Bengal by the Englishman William Carey in 1800 facilitated the distribution of this literature. 
• Carey was also in charge of writing a book on Bengali grammar and publishing an English-Bengali dictionary. 
• With the arrival of nationalist fervor in Bengal, the literature took a clear turn toward the concerns of the common man’s suffering and the nation’s plight under British rule. 
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy was one of the first to write in both Bengali and English, and his work was widely read. 
• Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and Akshay Kumar Dutta were two of his contemporaries. 
• Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s writing, however, was the pinnacle of nationalist Bengali literature. 

• His novel Anand Math was a huge success, so much so that Vande Mataram, our national anthem, is based on an excerpt from it. 

• Rabindranath Tagore, the first Indian to receive the Nobel Prize, was also a Bengali writer. In 1913, he received this award for his Bengali masterpiece Geetanjali. 
• Important contributions to Bengali literature have been made by Sharat Chandra Chatterjee, Qazi Nazrul Islam, and R. C. Dutta. 

Assamese Literature 

• Buranjis (court chronicles) dominated Assamese literature during the medieval period. 
• In addition to these official works, Shankardev wrote devotional poetry in Assamese. 
• Padmanaba Gohain Barua and Lakshmi Nath Bezbarua have made significant contributions to modern Assamese literature. 

Odia Literature 

• Odia literature has a sizable corpus from the east of India. 
• Sarala Das created the first piece. 
• Upendra Bhanja, who wrote in 1700, was a notable writer during the Medieval period. 
• Radha Nath Ray and Fakirmohan Senapati have made their mark in the modern era with their work’s nationalistic tone. 

Gujarati, Rajasthani, and Sindhi Literature 

Gujarati Literature 

• The Bhakti movement was at its peak in Gujarat, which influenced the literature written there. 
• Narsinh Mehta is a well-known name in this region for fusing devotional songs for Lord Krishna with local folk traditions. 
• Later works included poetry by Narmad and prose by Govardhan Ram, who wrote the classic Gujarati novel Saraswati Chandra, which was recently adapted into a television series. 
• Dr. K.M Munshi, who has written both fiction and non-fiction (historical) work, reached the pinnacle of success in Gujarati literature. Prithvi Vallabha is one of his best novels. 

Rajasthani Literature 

• The medieval Rajasthani literature was rife with dialects, and there are two main forms of fictional writing known as Dingal and Pingal. 
• Dhola Maru is the most well-known text in this context. 
• Mirabai’s writings in Braj have become well-known. 
• In this region, several other saints wrote devotional poetry. 
• Rajasthani writers’ stories were typically oral, spread by bards who sang the virkavya (victory poetic songs). 

Sindhi Literature 

• Sindhi literature has been heavily influenced by the two neighboring states of Rajasthan and Gujarat. 
• Because Sindh was always on India’s border, it was among the first to come into contact with Islamic settlers in India, which explains the influence of Islam and Sufism on poetry. 
• Dewan Kauramal and Mirza Kalish Beg are two well-known names in Sindhi literature. 

Kashmiri Literature 

• One of the earliest texts from Kashmir was Kalhan’s Rajatarangani, which was written in Sanskrit. 
• The locals spoke Kashmiri, which was influenced by Persian and Hindi dialects. 
• When the Bhakti movement was at its peak in the early medieval period, the Kashmiri language saw its first female poetess, Lal Ded, a Shaivite mystic. 
• However, the major spread occurred after the arrival of Islam and Sufism in Kashmir, as well as the publication of several major writers such as Sufi Ghulam Muhammad, Zinda Kaul, Mahjoor, and others. 
• Another intriguing figure in Kashmiri literature is Noor Din, also known as Nand Rishi, who was said to have combined Hindi and Islamic elements in his poetry. 
• With the Dogra family gaining political power in Jammu in 1846, the Kashmiri language was eclipsed by the Dogri language. 

Punjabi Literature 

• Recently, there has been renewed interest in reviving the language. 
• Several regional and geographical influences affected not only Punjabi politics but also its literature, which was written in two major scripts: Persian and Gurmukhi. 
• The religious book of the Sikhs, the Adi Granth, is one of the greatest texts in the world, with the majority of it written in Gurmukhi. 
• It also includes Dohas by Kabir, Dadu, and Nanak in Hindi or Braj, but it is a very layered text. 
• Guru Gobind Singh, who contributed to the Adi Granth, also wrote Punjabi Savaiyyas (poetry). 
• Love stories and epics such as Sohni-Mahiwal, Sassi-Punnu, and Waris Shah’s famous Heer-Ranjha were heavily influenced by local literature. 
• The Sufi poetry of Baba Farid and Bulley Shah became popular with both the masses and the region’s rulers. 
• They wrote many songs or classical compositions known as Kafi(s), which were usually sung by the people. 
• Nationalistic writing influenced modern Punjabi literature as well, and Bhagat Singh’s legendary ‘Rang de Basanti Chola’ is a classic example of this trend. 

Marathi Literature 

• Although we refer to it as the Marathi language, Maharashtra has several dialects, and literature is written in all of them. 
• Saint Jnaneshwar’s 13th-century work is the oldest known work in Marathi (also known as Gyaneshwar). 

• He is credited with establishing kirtan in Maharashtra and has written a detailed Marathi commentary on the Bhagavata Gita. 

• Apart from him, several saints such as Namdev, Sena, and Gora were well-known during the same period. Janabai is the oldest known female writer. 
• However, the most famous Maharashtrian saint of the sixteenth century was Eknath, who wrote commentaries on the Bhagwat Purana and Ramayana as well as works in the vernacular language. 
• Other notable Bhakti poets include Tukaram and Ramdas. 
• The nationalist movement had an impact on Marathi’s poetry and prose writing as well. 
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak, one of our greatest nationalists, published his regional newspaper Kesari in Marathi. This publication criticized the British and their policies, as well as tracts written by leading revolutionaries of the time. 
• With the works of Hari Narayan Apte, V.S. Chiplunkar, and Keshav Sut, Marathi’s prose writing took a turn for the better. 
• M.G. Ranade, G.T. Madholkar, and K.T Telang are examples of contemporary Marathi poets. 

Conclusion 

The most significant literary event that revolutionized literature was the emergence of literary prose in all modern Indian languages, as well as the invention of the printing press in Serampore, Bengal, under the patronage of an Englishman, William Carey (1761-1834). Between 1800 and 1850, the birth of newspapers and periodicals in Indian languages was extremely important for the development of prose. and the Serampore missionaries launched Bengali journalism on its path. The emergence of prose as a powerful medium brought about a type of change that coincided with the modernization process.