Introduction

The invasion of the Turks at the turn of the eleventh century from Central Asia had far-reaching consequences on the history of India. The Turks established the politico-military control over major regions of the country and promoted the religion—Islam that they professed and introduced and nurtured the Islamic culture in all spheres. These factors led to the emergence of the Muslim community with a well-defined religion and its own socio-cultural moorings. Unlike the invaders of ancient India, the Turks and the Indian converts to Islam maintained their distinct religio-cultural identity. In order to understand the reasons behind the Turkish invasions and the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, it is important to analyze the socio-economic and political conditions that prevailed in India on the eve of the Turkish invasion.

Social Condition of India on the eve of Turkish Invasion

Division of the Society into Caste System

Since ancient times the Indian society was divided into four hierarchical castes with prescribed privileges and disabilities. The four major castes were: the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and the Sudras. The division of the society into castes and sub-castes had created sharp differences between different sections of the society. This in turn had weakened the society. The Brahmins and Kshatriyas commanded the highest respect in the society while the position of the Sudras and the Chandalas had become worse than before. The Smriti writers of the period ascribed exaggerated privileges to the Brahmins. On the other hand, the Sudras were condemned to rigorous social and religious disabilities.

Besides the traditional four castes, there was a large section of the people called antayaja. The hunters, the weavers, the fishermen, the shoemakers and other people who engaged in such professions belonged to this section. They occupied a position lower than the Sudras. Still lower in social status were the Hadis, Doms, Chandalas etc. who performed duties such as lifting the dead cattle, cremating the dead people, scavenging etc. They were forced to live outside the cities and villages. They were treated as outcastes and untouchables.

With the passage of time, the caste system had become very rigid. Marriages between different castes were forbidden. According to a writer Parasara, eating a Sudra’s food, association with a Sudra, sitting alongside a Sudra, and taking lessons from a Sudra are acts which drag down even a noblest person. The position of the lower castes in the society can be imagined by the fact that even the Vaishyas were not allowed to study the religious texts. According to Al-Beruni, if anyone dared to study the religious texts his tongue was cut off.

One of the important features of the Hindu society on the eve of the Turkish invasion was the emergence of new castes such as the Kayastha caste. Originally, people from different castes, including Brahmins and Sudras, who worked in the royal establishments, came to be known as Kayastha. With the passage of time, they crystallized into a distinct caste. As Hinduism was spreading, it absorbed Buddhists, Jains, indigenous tribes, and foreigners who embraced Hinduism during this period. These groups came to be organized into new castes and sub-castes. In most cases, they continued their own social customs and traditions in relation to marriage etc. They even continued to worship their own tribal gods and goddesses.

The caste system and the proliferation of additional sub-castes with their distinct social customs and position in the caste hierarchy made the Hindu society more complex and divided on the eve of the Turkish invasion.