Q1. Critically examine Augustine’s theory of the Two Cities.

St. Augustine (354–430 AD), often called the father of Christian political thought, developed his theory of the Two Cities in his monumental work The City of God (412–427 AD). Written in the aftermath of the sack of Rome in 410 AD, the book responded to pagan charges that Christianity had weakened the empire. Augustine’s central argument was that Rome fell not because of Christianity but because of the corruption of human nature. Against this backdrop, Augustine constructed a philosophy of history, society, and politics through the idea of the City of God and the Earthly City. The Two Cities became a framework to explain the tension between divine and human order, love of God and love of self, spiritual salvation and worldly power.

Scholars such as Ernest Barker call Augustine the first great political philosopher of Christianity for giving political expression to theology, while R. A. Markus describes his legacy as ambivalent—inspiring both Church orthodoxy and Protestant reform. This theory remains one of the most influential foundations of medieval political thought.

1.The Core Idea of the Two Cities

Augustine divides humanity allegorically into two distinct communities:

• City of God (Heavenly City): Formed by those who live according to the love of God. Its aim is salvation, eternal life, and true peace.
• Earthly City (City of Man): Formed by those who live according to the love of self and material things. It seeks domination, worldly pleasures, and temporal peace.

This division arises not from geography or institutions but from different orientations of love. For Augustine, love of God is the highest good, while love of self leads to pride (superbia), injustice, and conflict.The two cities coexist and intermingle in history but remain spiritually distinct. They will be fully separated only at the Last Judgment.

2.Characteristics of the Two Cities

City of God

• Eternal, universal, and transcendent.
• Composed of saints, angels, and all who are predestined for salvation.
• Represents justice, peace, harmony, and love of God.
• Pilgrim community on earth: its members live among others but are oriented toward eternal life.

Earthly City

• Temporal, perishable, and tied to human sinfulness.
• Born from pride and desire for domination.
• Characterized by political power, injustice, and attachment to worldly goods.
• Even great empires like Rome belong here because they lack true justice.

Augustine famously remarks that “remove justice, and what are kingdoms but gangs of criminals on a large scale?” Rome, despite its glory, could not be the City of God since it pursued power, not righteousness.

3.Relation Between the Two Cities

Although spiritually distinct, the two cities are intermingled in earthly history. Christians live in political communities and share in temporal peace, but their ultimate citizenship belongs to heaven.

The Church, though holy, is not identical with the City of God, since even within it exist sinners. Likewise, the state, though necessary, remains part of the earthly order. Thus, Augustine rejects any perfect fusion of church and state.

This dualism became central to medieval debates on the relation between spiritual and temporal authority. Charles Norris Cochrane observed that Augustine’s City of God provided both a defense of Christianity and a blueprint for understanding church–state relations.

4.Historical Vision

The theory of the Two Cities is also a philosophy of history. History is a struggle between the two orders: pride versus humility, self-love versus love of God. Unlike the cyclical Greek conception, Augustine introduces a linear, providential view: history begins with creation, moves through the Fall and redemption, and culminates in the Last Judgment where the two cities are finally separated.

Thus, history is meaningful because it is guided by God’s plan. Earthly empires may rise and fall, but the City of God is eternal.

5.Critical Examination

While Augustine’s theory profoundly shaped medieval thought, it has been subject to both appreciation and criticism.

a) Strengths / Contributions

• Integration of faith and politics: Augustine gave a political expression to Christian theology, bridging classical philosophy and medieval Christianity.
• Moral critique of politics: By distinguishing true justice from worldly power, Augustine exposed the limits of earthly states. His statement on kingdoms and criminal gangs remains a sharp critique of unjust rule.
• Philosophy of history: His linear, teleological vision influenced later Christian and even modern historical consciousness.
• Enduring framework: The idea of the Two Cities provided a model to reflect on the relationship between church and state, faith and politics.

b) Limitations / Criticisms

• Over-pessimism about human nature: Augustine’s emphasis on sin and corruption reduced scope for a positive political philosophy. Sheldon Wolin notes that his thought offered moral critique of politics but little constructive theory.
• Ambiguity in church–state relations: While Augustine rejected identification of church and City of God, his writings allowed later medieval thinkers to justify both papal supremacy and state authority.
• Predestination and fatalism: By linking membership of the City of God to divine predestination, Augustine appeared to undermine human freedom and responsibility. Erasmus and later humanists criticized this as deterministic.
• Otherworldly orientation: His focus on heavenly salvation diverted attention from building just political institutions on earth, leading some critics to call his theory politically “quietist.”

• Platonic influence: Karl Popper argued that Augustine’s borrowing from Plato represented a retreat from open, rational political life to closed, religious authority.

c) Scholarly Perspectives

• Ernest Barker: Augustine is the first great Christian political philosopher, as he connected theology with political analysis.
• R. W. Dyson: City of God is not just theology but a classic of political philosophy, marking the shift from Greco-Roman to medieval thought.
• R. A. Markus: His legacy is ambivalent, feeding both Catholic orthodoxy and Protestant reform.
• Hannah Arendt: Reinterpreted Augustine’s philosophy of love to understand modern politics.
• Friedrich Nietzsche: Condemned Augustine as life-denying, fostering guilt and asceticism.

Conclusion

Augustine’s theory of the Two Cities is one of the most enduring contributions to Western political thought. Despite criticisms, Augustine remains a foundational thinker. His Two Cities framework influenced medieval scholasticism, the Reformation, and even modern debates on religion and politics. As Charles Taylor observes, Augustine gave voice to the “inward turn” of Western subjectivity, linking personal love and communal destiny in a way that continues to resonate.

In critically examining his theory, one finds both the limitations of a theology-centered politics and the enduring power of a moral critique of unjust states. Augustine’s Two Cities remain a metaphorical lens through which the tension between faith and politics, divine and human, continues to be understood.