• The concept of democracy is central to fierce debates in political theory and everyday political discussions.
• It discusses the evolution of democracy, various criticisms against it, and contemporary perspectives in democratic theory.
• The chapter concludes with key debates that characterize democratic theory today.
• Collective decision-making is an important aspect of everyday life, whether in groups of friends or family.
• Example: In a group of ten friends, seven want to see a movie and three want to visit an art exhibition. What should the group decide to do?
• Example: In a university class of thirty students, 25 agree on a date for a debate, but five students have unavoidable reasons for not being available. Should the decision follow the majority or consider the five students?
• These situations raise questions about how to judge whether decisions are fair or the best possible.
• The idea of democracy provides a basis for making such judgments by ensuring that decisions reflect the wishes of those affected by them.
• There are other ways of making decisions, such as a father deciding the family vacation without consulting others or a teacher unilaterally choosing the debate topic or date.
• Advocates of democracy argue that decisions should be made by reflecting the preferences of all members in the group.
• Democracy is both a method for collective decision-making and a set of values and behaviours that people adopt when making decisions.
• The term democracy originates from Ancient Greece and is derived from the Greek word kratos, meaning ‘power’ or ‘rule’.
• Democracy literally means ‘rule by the demos’, where demos refers to ‘the people’ or ‘the many’.
• Like autocracy, aristocracy, and bureaucracy, the term follows the pattern of describing different forms of rule or power.
• In its original usage, democracy had a negative or pejorative connotation, implying rule by the property-less and uneducated masses.
• Democracy was initially viewed as a threat to liberty and wisdom, not as an ideal system.
• Thinkers like Aristotle acknowledged the potential of popular participation but feared unrestrained democracy could lead to mob rule.
• These negative associations with democracy persisted well into the twentieth century.
• Democratic government has varied greatly over time, with significant historical and structural differences.
• A key distinction exists between direct democracy, based on popular participation, and representative democracy, which operates through elected representatives.
• The modern form of democracy is largely characterized by electoral democracy, especially as seen in the industrialized West.
• This modern form is commonly referred to as liberal democracy.
• Although liberal democracy is widely practiced and has been largely successful, it is only one among many possible models of democracy.
• The democratic legitimacy of liberal democracy has at times been called into question.
• Today, democracy enjoys near-universal approval, but this can obscure the long-standing and ongoing debates surrounding its merits and flaws.
• Discussions about the vices and virtues of democracy have become even more intense in the late twentieth century.

Meaning of Democracy

• The democratic political tradition dates back to Ancient Greece, but widespread support among political thinkers only emerged in the nineteenth century.
• Prior to this, democracy was largely dismissed as rule by the ignorant and unenlightened masses.
• Today, virtually all political ideologies—liberals, conservatives, socialists, communists, anarchists, and even fascists—claim to uphold democracy and assert their democratic credentials.
• This diversity shows that democracy does not represent a single, agreed ideal but rather an ongoing arena of debate about the nature of popular rule and how it can be implemented.
• Democratic political thought revolves around three central questions:

1. 1. Who are the people? This questions the limits on political participation based on factors like age, education, gender, social background, etc.
   2. How should the people rule? This involves choices between direct and indirect democracy, different forms of representation, and electoral systems.
   3. How far should popular rule extend? Should democracy be limited to political life or also include the family, workplace, and economy?

• Democracy is not a single, unambiguous phenomenon; rather, it consists of multiple theories and models, each offering different visions of popular rule.
• There are various democratic forms and mechanisms, and fundamentally different justifications for democratic rule.
• Classical democracy, inspired by the Athenian model, emphasizes direct and continuous citizen participation in government.
• Protective democracy is a limited and indirect form designed to protect individuals against government abuse, linked to natural rights theory and utilitarianism.
• Developmental democracy seeks to broaden popular participation to promote freedom and individual flourishing, influencing New Left thinkers and radical/participatory democracy in the 1960s-70s.
• Deliberative democracy stresses the role of public debate and discussion in shaping citizens’ identities, interests, and the common good.
• Critics of democracy argue it:
  • Fails to recognize that some views are more valuable than others.
  • Upholds majority views at the expense of minority rights and interests.
  • Threatens individual rights by encouraging the growth of government power.
  • Is based on a questionable notion of a public interest or common good, which is weakened by the pluralism of modern societies.

Key Figures in Democracy

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Rousseau viewed democracy as the most important means through which humans can achieve freedom or autonomy, in the sense of ‘obedience to a law one prescribes to oneself’. He was a strenuous critic of the practice of elections and insisted that citizens are only ‘free’ when they participate directly and continuously in shaping the life of their community. For Rousseau, this ultimately meant obedience to the general will, although he was less clear about the precise mechanisms through which the general will would emerge.

Joseph Schumpeter (1883–1950)

A Moravian-born US economist and sociologist, Schumpeter developed an analysis of capitalism that emphasized its bureaucratic tendencies and its growing resemblance to socialism. His theory of democracy offered an alternative to the ‘classical doctrine’, which was based upon the idea of a shared notion of the common good; it portrayed the democratic process as an arena of struggle between power-seeking politicians intent upon winning the people’s vote. His view that political democracy is analogous to an economic market had considerable influence upon later rational-choice theories. Schumpeter’s most important political work is Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy ([1942].

Crawford Brough Macpherson (1911–87)

A Canadian political theorist, Macpherson developed a leftist form of liberalism that reflects the influence of Marxism. He portrayed early liberalism as a form of possessive individualism, intrinsically linked to market society. His critique of liberal democracy stressed liberalism’s pre-democratic features and acknowledged its bias in favour of capitalism. Nevertheless, he argued that the basic liberal democratic principle of equal liberty could ultimately be realised, but only within conditions of participatory democracy and in a non-market social environment. Macpherson’s major works include The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism (1962), Democratic Theory (1973) and The Life and Times of Liberal Democracy (1977).

Robert Dahl

A US political scientist, Dahl is a leading exponent of pluralist theory. He contrasts modern democratic systems with the classical democracy of Ancient Greece, using the term ‘polyarchy’ to refer to rule by the many, as distinct from rule by all citizens. His empirical studies led him to conclude that the system of competitive elections prevents any permanent elite from emerging and ensures wide, if imperfect, access to the political process. His later writings reflect a growing awareness of the tension between democracy and the power of major capitalist corporations. Dahl’s major works include A Preface to Democratic Theory (1956), Who Governs? (1963), Dilemmas of Pluralist Democracy (1982) and A Preface to Economic Democracy (1985).