INTRODUCTION

Assessment is the process of collecting information with regard to abilities, interest, aptitude, personality, attitude and beliefs. It is an integral part of day to day life, and is one of the important work of the counselor. Without assessment the counselor can not reach any conclusion; so it is a basic step to get information related to the client. For psychological assessment in counseling the counselor uses various assessment techniques for which the most known is the standardized tools named as psychological test to assess clients’ behaviour. Formal assessment is planed and is based on certain predetermined criteria whereas some assessment techniques are non standardized such as case study, interview, observation etc.

MEANING OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

Let us first define the term assessment. It can be defined as “the use of standards or systematic procedure for observing our behaviour.” Assessment describes the status of a phenomenon at a particular time; it describes without value judgment a situation that prevails; it attempts no explanation of underlying reasons and makes no recommendations for action. It may deal with prevailing opinion, knowledge, practice, or conditions. The definition of assessment for our purpose can be the process of collecting information to be used as the basis for informed decision by the assessor or by those to whom results are communicated.

Psychological assessment usually involves a more comprehensive assessment of the individual. This process of assessment makes use of psychological tests or other qualitative method. Therefore, it is a process of collecting information which can be formal, informal, qualitative and quantitative.

Psychological assessment is a process that involves the integration of information from multiple sources, such as tests related to ability, intelligence, interests or attitudes, as well as information from personal interviews. Collateral information is also collected about personal, occupational, or medical history, such as from records or from interviews with parents, spouses, teachers, or previous therapists or physicians. Moreover the psychological assessment is a structured interview that gathers information from and/or tests a person to evaluate his or her mental health. It is “an extremely complex process of solving problems (answering questions) in which psychological tests are often used as one of the methods of collecting relevant data” (Anastasi, 1990).

The psychological assessment gathers information about the individual to provide him/her guidance and counseling. It is the first step in any guidance and counseling situation. The process typically starts with a key complaint or presenting problem-this is usually what prompts the person to seek help. A complete psychological assessment should include: bio psychosocial history, neurological assessment, psychological testing and physical examination.

Once it is completed, the assessment will help to establish either a tentative or definitive diagnosis. With this information, the counselor can inform to the client about the results, and psycho therapy/counseling can be given.

Thus, a psychological assessment is the attempt of a skilled professional, usually a psychologist, to use the techniques and tools of psychology to learn either general or specific facts about another person, either to inform others of how they function now, or to predict their behaviour and functioning in the future.

Maloney and Ward describe assessment as follows. It

1. Typically does not involve defined procedures or steps
2. Frequently uses tests
3. Contributes to some decision process to some problem, often by redefining the problem, breaking the problem down into smaller pieces, or highlighting some part(s) of the problem
4. Requires the examiner to consider, evaluate, and integrate the data
5. Produces results that can not be evaluated solely on psychometric grounds
6. Is less routine and inflexible, more individualised.

The point of assessment is often diagnosis or classification. These are the act of placing a person in a strictly or loosely defined category of people. This allows us to quickly understand what they are like in general, and to assess the presence of other relevant characteristics based upon people similar to them.

Assessments can be both process and product oriented. Process-oriented assessments do not necessarily produce a finished product; they are primarily tools used to guide ongoing relationships to direct activities and plans. Of course, assessments frequently overlap in their nature and purpose. Product-oriented assessments are assessments that result in the creation of a report or document. For example, a medical history is required when patients are hospitalized and mental status examinations and their results concerning emotional and cognitive functioning are documented.

PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT

The purposes of assessment in guidance and counseling situation are as follows:

1. Self Understanding: The basic purpose of carrying out an assessment is for gaining insight in helping the client understand themselves better, helping them to know what they can do and cannot do including their strengths and weaknesses.
2. To Diagnose Student’s Problem: To diagnose the client’s problem is another purpose that assessment data fulfills By using the data properly, we can interpret causal factors. It also helps to identify various aspects ects such as family background, physical health, academic performance etc
3. To Help in Career Planning and Education: Assessment done with the help of various psychological tools guides the students in making choices for their career and selection of subjects/courses.
4. To Help Predict the Future Performance: Counselors use assessment data to estimate individual’s attitude, ability, personality, etc that have implication for the success and adjustment which help to predict the future performance of the individual. Moreover, the counselor can also motivate the client in a direction where he/she can get more success.
5. To Evaluate the Outcome of Counseling: Assessment is done prior to counselling as well as at the end of it. This gives the counselor valuable insights for further intervention and to achieve the expected outcome.

NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

Psychological assessment is a structured process used to evaluate an individual’s cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and personality functioning. It involves the use of standardized tests, interviews, observations, and case history analysis to diagnose psychological disorders, assess intellectual capabilities, and guide treatment planning. Psychological assessments are used in various fields, including clinical psychology, educational settings, organizational psychology, forensic assessments, and neuropsychology.

The primary objective of psychological assessment is to gather information about an individual’s mental health, cognitive abilities, personality traits, and behavioral patterns. It follows a systematic approach to ensure reliability and validity. Reliability refers to the consistency of test results over time, while validity ensures that a test measures what it is intended to measure. Standardized tests, such as intelligence tests (e.g., Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children or Adults), personality assessments (e.g., Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, Big Five Personality Test), and neuropsychological tests (e.g., Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Stroop Test), are commonly used to assess different psychological domains.

Clinical interviews are an essential component of psychological assessments. Structured and semi-structured interviews, such as the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5 (SCID), help in diagnosing mental disorders by collecting information about an individual’s symptoms, personal history, and functioning. Behavioral observations also play a crucial role, especially in assessing children or individuals with communication difficulties. Direct observation in naturalistic or controlled environments helps psychologists understand behavioral tendencies and social interactions.

Psychological assessment is also widely used in educational settings to evaluate learning disabilities, giftedness, and developmental disorders. Intelligence tests like the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales and the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children help determine cognitive strengths and weaknesses. Academic achievement tests, such as the Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT) and Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement, assess an individual’s proficiency in reading, writing, and mathematics. Additionally, assessments like the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) and Conners Rating Scales help identify neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

In forensic psychology, psychological assessments help determine criminal responsibility, competency to stand trial, and risk of reoffending. Tools like the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) assess psychopathic traits, while the MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool evaluates an individual’s ability to understand legal proceedings. These assessments assist in legal decision-making, sentencing, and treatment recommendations for offenders.

Neuropsychological assessments help in diagnosing brain injuries, dementia, and other cognitive impairments. Tests such as the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) and the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) evaluate memory, executive functioning, and language abilities. Such assessments are crucial for detecting early signs of neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease.

Psychological assessment is guided by ethical principles, including confidentiality, informed consent, and fair testing practices. Psychologists must ensure that assessments are free from cultural and linguistic biases to provide accurate and fair evaluations. Standardized norms based on age, gender, and cultural background help in interpreting test scores accurately. Furthermore, assessment results must be communicated effectively to clients, caregivers, or stakeholders to facilitate appropriate interventions and treatment planning.

The principles of assessment have been given by Shertzer and Linden which states that assessment should be Holistic, Ongoing, Balanced, Accurate and Confidential. These are explained below.

1. Assessment should be Holistic: This principle involves multiple methods in collecting information. The use of a combination of assessment techniques increases the likelihood of applying positive intervention and consequently the achievement of the desired goals. The principle of holistic assessment follows a systematic process to arrive at an understanding of the individual To make the assessment process more systematic a counselor needs to keep in mind three important factors i.e. What to assess, when to assess and in which state of assessing is required.

Assessment should be within the context of life pattern of the individual, i.e., supportive information regarding other aspects of the person need also to be considered to better understand the problem. For example, a student may experience difficulty in school due to limited academic preparation. However, it may not be the only factor, other factor such as self esteem which might not be evident, but could influence the academic achievement of the students.

Assessment measures and procedures must be based on the demands of the situation. The selection of the tool and procedure to be used will depend on the demands of the presented situation. Therefore, first the basic data should be collected and examined before obtaining information on the supporting factors through administering different tests.

Special condition and situation for understanding client’s behaviour should also be given due consideration in the process of assessment. In addition to this the counselor should also keep in mind the capacity, motivation and other aspects related to client’s behaviour while assessing. The counselor should be alert to behaviour which is observable through nonverbal cues. Nonverbal behaviour shows many hints which can be noted through body posture, facial expressions, hand movements etc. of the client.

In holistic assessment it is necessary for the counselor to know the culture and the social context of the client, as it can explain the nature and personality of the client. Different characteristics of the client such as self reliance, assertiveness, competiveness and adjustment with the group members can be understood in the context of the client’s cultural context.

2. Assessment should be on Going: Ongoing assessment allows comparison between the client’s initial present problems and the client’s current functioning. It appraises the counselor of possible new and urgent needs which may arise after the initial assessment, therefore psychological assessment must take into account the dynamics nature of the human behaviour which involves his/her needs, goals, abilities etc.

In assessment, the conceptualization of an individual must be continuous. This is important because the counselor keeps on refining his conceptualization of the client in the light of more and more information collected and interaction between the client and the counselor. Hence, assessment needs to be considered as ongoing and not episodic. As far as possible, assessment should be based on the longitudinal data i.e. understanding of individual’s behaviour is better and more meaningful if the data in collected over a period of time rather than on current information.

e.g. longitudinal data is helpful for the diagnosis of the maladaptive behaviours.

3. Assessment should be Balanced: Assessment makes use of normative information as well as individualised data. Both types of data combined try to give a better understanding about the client. It is the purpose and the situation that decides which type of assessment data is required.

4. Assessment should be Accurate: The assessment device used should be accurate and the counselor should have the skill for interpreting the data. Counselors must keep in mind the possibility of errors, as all tools may not be 100% accurate; so they must try to minimize the errors by using standardized procedures.

Predictions of future behaviour should always be stated in terms of probabilities as human behaviour is so complex and dynamic. Assessment therefore can only provide useful insights to derive inferences rather than making prediction in absolute terms.

5. Assessment should be Confidential: Clients need to be assured of confidentiality of their personal information. This will develop trust with the counselor. It is one of the basic ethic of counseling as well. The client will also be able to build a good rapport based on mutual trust and respect.

The Test

• A test is defined as a measuring device or procedure.
• When the word test is prefixed with a modifier, it refers to a device or procedure designed to measure a variable related to that modifier.
• A medical test is a device or procedure to measure variables related to the practice of medicine, such as X-rays, blood tests, and testing reflexes.
• A psychological test measures variables related to psychology, such as intelligence, personality, aptitude, interests, attitudes, and values.
• Psychological tests almost always involve analysis of a sample of behavior, which could be responses to questionnaires, oral responses, or performance on tasks.
• The behavior sample could be elicited by the test itself or be naturally occurring behavior under observation.
• Psychological tests differ with respect to content, format, administration procedures, scoring, interpretation, and technical quality.
• The content of a test varies with its focus. For example, two personality tests might differ greatly in the items included, depending on the developer’s definition of personality.
• Different test developers may approach test creation with different theoretical orientations.
• The format of a test refers to the form, structure, and layout of test items, as well as aspects like time limits. It also applies to the form of administration, such as computerized or pencil-and-paper.
• Some tests are designed for one-to-one administration, requiring an active test administrator, while others, especially group tests, might not need the administrator to be present during testing.
• Scoring involves assigning evaluative codes or statements to performance on tests, tasks, or other behavior samples.
• A cut score is a reference point, usually numerical, used to divide data into classifications for making decisions, such as in grading or employment decisions.
• Cut scores can be derived formally or informally (e.g., an informal “eyeball” method used by teachers for grading).
• The judgment of those setting cut scores plays a significant role, and reactions to being “cut” have been explored in research.
• Tests can be scored in different ways: by the test-takers themselves, by trained examiners, or automatically by computers.
• Some tests come with manuals that describe scoring criteria and how to interpret scores (e.g., intelligence tests), while others, like the Rorschach Inkblot Test, are sold without manuals, leaving interpretation to the user.
• Psychometric soundness refers to how consistently and accurately a psychological test measures what it is intended to measure.
• Psychometric utility refers to the usefulness or practical value of a test for a specific purpose.
• The term test may be used broadly to refer to various measurement procedures, including situational performance measures.
• Throughout the book, the term test is used in its widest possible sense to apply to various measurement procedures.

The Interview

• The word interview typically conjures images of face-to-face talk, but in psychological assessment, it involves more than just conversation.
• In face-to-face interviews, the interviewer takes note of both verbal and nonverbal behavior, such as body language, facial expressions, eye contact, and willingness to cooperate.
• The appearance of the interviewee, such as neat versus sloppy or appropriate versus inappropriate, may also be noted.
• Interviews ideally are face-to-face to capture a wealth of nonverbal information, but they can also be conducted by telephone or other formats like sign language, online, e-mail, or text messaging.
• An interview is defined as a method of gathering information through direct communication with reciprocal exchange.
• Interviews vary in terms of purpose, length, and nature.
• Psychologists use interviews for purposes such as making diagnostic, treatment, and selection decisions.
• Examples include school psychologists assessing educational interventions, court-appointed psychologists determining insanity, or specialists assessing brain damage.
• Psychologists may also use interviews to study consumer behavior and improve product marketing.
• Human resources professionals use interviews for hiring, firing, and advancement decisions.
• A panel interview involves multiple interviewers and is used in human resources to minimize individual biases, though its cost may not always justify the benefits.
• The interview method is widely used beyond psychology, including television, radio, and Internet interviews.
• An interview is a reciprocal affair, where both the interviewee and the interviewer influence each other’s responses.
• The quality of information gathered depends on the skills of the interviewer, such as their pacing, rapport, and ability to convey genuineness, empathy, and humor.
• Interviewers can differ in these attributes, which can affect the interviewee’s responses.
• The way celebrity attributes might influence interview responses is illustrated in the provided example.

The Portfolio

• Students and professionals in many fields, including art and architecture, keep files of their work products, which are called a portfolio.
• A portfolio can consist of work on paper, canvas, film, video, audio, or other mediums.
• Portfolios are used as tools of evaluation, showcasing samples of one’s ability and accomplishment.
• Employers of commercial artists use portfolios to make hiring decisions, often based on the impressiveness of the sample drawings.
• Employers of on-air radio talent also use portfolios, particularly audio samples, to evaluate candidates’ previous work.
• The appeal of portfolio assessment extends to many fields, including education.
• In education, some argue that evaluating a student’s writing skills through a test is less effective than asking them to compile a selection of writing samples.
• Portfolio assessment is also used in the hiring of instructors.
• An instructor’s portfolio may include lesson plans, published writings, and visual aids developed for teaching specific subjects.
• These materials are valuable for those making hiring decisions in education.

Case History Data

• Case history data refers to records, transcripts, and other accounts that preserve archival information, both official and informal, relevant to an assessee.
• Examples of case history data include files from institutions like schools, hospitals, employers, religious institutions, and criminal justice agencies.
• Other examples of case history data are letters, written correspondence, photos, family albums, newspaper clippings, magazine clippings, home videos, movies, and audiotapes.
• Work samples, artwork, doodlings, and items related to interests and hobbies also qualify as case history data.
• Case history data is a useful tool in various assessment contexts.
• In clinical evaluations, case history data can provide insight into an individual’s past and current adjustment, as well as events that may have contributed to changes.
• In neuropsychological evaluations, case history data is critical for understanding neuropsychological functioning prior to a trauma or event resulting in a deficit.
• School psychologists use case history data to gain insight into a student’s academic or behavioral standing and help with future class placements.
• The term case history can also refer to the assembly of data into an illustrative case study.
• A case study might explain how an individual’s personality and environmental conditions led to a successful world leader.
• A case study might also explore an individual’s actions, such as attempting to assassinate a high-ranking political figure, shedding light on individuals and conditions leading to similar future attempts.
• A classic work on groupthink includes case history material on collective decision-making, highlighting instances where decisions were suboptimal

Behavioral Observation

• Behavioral observation involves monitoring the actions of others or oneself through visual or electronic means, while recording both quantitative and qualitative information.
• Behavioral observation is commonly used in diagnostic settings, such as inpatient facilities, behavioral research laboratories, and classrooms.
• In addition to diagnosis, behavioral observation is used for selection purposes, such as in corporate settings, to identify people who demonstrate the abilities needed for specific tasks or jobs.
• Researchers may also use naturalistic observation to study behavior in its natural setting, outside of controlled environments like clinics or labs.
• For example, a team studying the socializing behavior of autistic children with peers may choose natural settings rather than a laboratory (Bellini et al., 2007).
• Behavioral observation helps design therapeutic interventions in institutional settings like schools, hospitals, prisons, and group homes.
• In a school, naturalistic observation of a culturally different child suspected of having linguistic problems might reveal the child has English language skills but is unwilling to demonstrate them due to factors like shyness or cultural upbringing.
• In practice, behavioral observation is used infrequently outside of research facilities, prisons, inpatient clinics, and other settings with easy access to assessees, mainly for economic reasons.
• Private practitioners find it economically unfeasible to observe clients for extended periods outside of the consulting room.
• However, some mental health professionals, particularly those in assisted living, find behavioral observation valuable for understanding patients’ capabilities outside institutional settings.
• For example, professionals may accompany patients outside the institution to assess their ability to perform activities of daily living.
• A tool like the Test of Grocery Shopping Skills, which relies on behavioral observation, may be very useful in such contexts.

Role-Play Tests

• Role play is defined as acting an improvised or partially improvised part in a simulated situation.
• A role-play test is a tool of assessment where assessees act as if they were in a particular situation and are evaluated based on their expressed thoughts, behaviors, abilities, and other variables.
• Role play is hyphenated when used as an adjective or a verb but not as a noun.
• Role play is useful for evaluating various skills, such as grocery shopping skills, in situations where real-life assessment is time-consuming, expensive, or inconvenient.
• In training, role play can simulate situations, like astronauts role-playing scenarios “as if” in outer space, saving millions in costs.
• Individuals evaluated in corporate, industrial, organizational, or military settings for managerial or leadership abilities are often placed in role-play situations.
• In corporate settings, for example, individuals might be asked to mediate a hypothetical dispute between personnel, using live actors or computer-generated simulations.
• Outcome measures of role-play assessments include ratings related to the individual’s ability to resolve conflict, such as effectiveness of approach, quality of resolution, and time to resolution.
• Role play is also used in clinical settings, particularly with substance abusers, to assess baseline measures of abuse, cravings, or coping skills before therapeutic intervention.
• The same role-play test may be administered after treatment to assess any changes or improvements.

Computers as Tools

• Computers play a significant role in contemporary assessment, especially in generating simulations and measuring variables that were previously difficult to quantify.
• Computers serve as test administrators, scoring tools, and interpreters, replacing traditional equipment (e.g., No. 2 pencil).
• Test administration by computers can be done online or offline.
• Scoring is efficient and fast, with computers able to derive test scores and identify patterns in the scores.
• Scoring may be done through local processing (on-site) or central processing (at a central location).
• If processed centrally, data can be sent and returned via teleprocessing, mail, or courier.
• The result can be a simple scoring report (listing of scores) or a more detailed extended scoring report, which includes statistical analyses of the test taker’s performance.
• The next level of reporting is an interpretive report, which includes numerical or narrative interpretive statements to guide the user’s attention to key scores.
• The highest level of report is a consultative report, which provides expert opinions and data analysis, typically written for assessment professionals.
• Another type of report is an integrative report, which combines data from other sources (e.g., medication records, behavioral observation data) with test data.
• CAPA stands for Computer-Assisted Psychological Assessment, where “assisted” refers to the help computers provide to the test user (not the testtaker).
• CAT stands for Computer Adaptive Testing, where the computer adapts the test to the testtaker’s ability or testtaking pattern (e.g., switching subjects after consecutive failures).
• CAPA allows test developers to use complex mathematical procedures for psychometrically sound tests, which would have taken much longer in the past.
• CAPA offers tailor-made tests with built-in scoring and interpretive capabilities, which was not possible before.
• Prior to CAPA, test users had to manually administer tests, score them using templates, and analyze the data, making the process laborious.
• CAPA represents a significant advance in assessment but has some pros and cons.

Other Tools

• Video is widely used in training and evaluation contexts, with specially created videos playing a significant role in assessment.
• Corporate personnel may respond to video-presented incidents of sexual harassment in the workplace.
• Police personnel may be asked how they would respond to emergencies presented through reenactments or actual video recordings.
• Psychotherapists may respond with a diagnosis and treatment plan for clients presented on videotape.
• The potential applications of video in assessment are endless.
• Psychologists use tools traditionally associated with medical health, such as thermometers to measure body temperature and gauges to measure blood pressure, for assessment purposes.
• Biofeedback equipment is used to measure bodily reactions (e.g., muscular tension) to stimuli.
• Less common instruments, such as the penile plethysmograph, measure male sexual arousal and may be used in diagnosing and treating sexual predators.
• Tests of smell may be administered to detect impairment in identifying odors, which is common in disorders with central nervous system involvement.
• Psychologists have been innovative in creating or adapting measurement tools for use in psychological assessment.
• This introduction has covered basic definitions and the tools used in psychological assessment.
• The next focus is on addressing fundamental questions about who, what, why, how, and where of testing and assessment.

• Laws are rules that individuals must obey for the good of society or are thought to be for the good of society as a whole.
• Some laws are uncontroversial, such as the law mandating driving on the right side of the road, which is accepted for safety and common good.
• Controversial laws include those related to issues like abortion, busing, capital punishment, euthanasia, deprogramming of religious cult members, and affirmative action in employment.
• The debate around how laws should be written and interpreted regarding these issues is often heated.
• Ethics are a set of principles regarding right, proper, or good conduct, distinct from laws, which are rules to be followed.
• Examples of ethics include principles like “Never shoot ’em in the back” from the Old West, “Women and children leave first in an emergency,” and “A captain goes down with his ship.”
• The ethics of journalism dictate that reporters present all sides of a controversial issue.
• An ethical principle in research is that data should never be fudged and must be reported accurately.
• A code of professional ethics defines the standard of care expected of members of a profession.
• Public and professional members have recently been on different sides regarding issues of ethics and law.

The Concerns of the Public

• The assessment enterprise is often misunderstood by the public.
• Common statements such as “The only thing tests measure is the ability to take tests” reflect misunderstanding.
• Consequences of public misunderstanding include fear, anger, legislation, litigation, and administrative regulations.
• Public concern about psychological testing became evident after World War I, when group tests developed for the military were adapted for civilian use.
• Popular magazine articles raised concerns, such as “The Abuse of Tests” (Haney, 1981).
• There were also constructive voices suggesting ways to correct assessment practices, such as Ruch (1925), a measurement specialist who proposed standards for test development.
• Ruch (1933) highlighted the need for a fact-finding organization to evaluate tests impartially using experimental and statistical methods.
• In 1927, Kelley published a pioneering book comparing published tests, but updates were necessary due to the rapid publication of new tests.
• Oscar Buros became the most tenacious professional in updating and revising test information, providing comprehensive evaluations of tests.
• The military testing during World War II didn’t attract as much attention as the World War I testing, but the launch of Sputnik by the Soviet Union had a significant effect on testing in the U.S.
• The National Defense Education Act passed after the launch of Sputnik provided federal money for ability and aptitude testing in schools, identifying gifted and talented students.
• The proliferation of large-scale testing in schools and increased use of ability and personality tests in government, military, and business led to renewed public concern.
• Public concern was reflected in magazine articles like “Testing: Can Everyone Be Pigeonholed?” (Newsweek, 1959) and “What the Tests Do Not Test” (New York Times Magazine, 1960).
• This concern led to congressional hearings on testing in 1965 (Amrine, 1965).
• Public concern flared again in 1969 after Arthur Jensen published his article in the Harvard Educational Review, arguing that genetic factors contributed to intelligence differences between Negro and white populations.
• Jensen’s views sparked an outpouring of attention on nature vs. nurture and skepticism about what intelligence tests really measure.
• In 1972, the U.S. Select Committee on Equal Education Opportunity was preparing hearings on the issue, but they were canceled due to controversy (Haney, 1981).
• Government involvement in psychological assessment has grown significantly in recent decades, impacting legislation, executive, and judicial processes at both federal and state levels.

Legislation

• State legislation also impacts the assessment enterprise, in addition to federal laws.
• In the 1970s, numerous states enacted minimum competency testing programs to make decisions regarding grade promotions, diploma awards, and remedial instruction.
• These programs reflected public support for ensuring high-school graduates have minimal competencies in subjects like reading, writing, and arithmetic.
• Truth-in-testing legislation began in the 1980s at the state level, requiring transparency about how tests are judged.
• Some laws mandated the disclosure of answers to postsecondary and professional school admissions tests within 30 days of test score publication.
• Test development information and technical soundness must be kept on file under some truth-in-testing laws.
• Other requirements include descriptions of: test purpose, subject matter, knowledge and skills measured, accuracy in scoring, error notification, and confidentiality procedures.
• Test developers argue that secrecy of test items is essential due to limited item pools and high costs of creating new test items.
• Some laws involve the executive branch, such as Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to enforce employment-related laws.
• In 1978, a set of Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures was published by the EEOC, Civil Service Commission, Department of Labor, and Justice Department.
• According to the guidelines, tests that adversely affect protected classes (e.g., hiring or promotion) are discriminatory unless they are validated and evidence high utility.
• The public often labels tests as unfair or discriminatory regardless of their utility, leading to demands for proportionality in hiring and college admissions, even when group members lack proportional skills.
• Gottfredson (2000) recommended improving selection standards but warned against lowering standards or using group quotas for hiring and admissions.
• In Texas, state law guarantees college admission for the top 10% of high school graduates, regardless of their SAT scores, even if many students from certain schools fall into the top percentage.
• In California, the passage of Proposition 209 banned racial preferences, resulting in a decrease in skills testing in the public sector.
• This change led to a de-emphasis on the Law School Admissions Test (LSAT) at the University of California, Berkeley law school and a shift in how undergraduate GPAs were weighted in admissions.
• Gottfredson (2000) argued that lowering standards hinders progress and that the focus should be on addressing gaps in skills rather than eliminating valid tests.
• Both state and federal legislatures, executive bodies, and courts have been heavily involved in testing and assessment.
• There is little consensus on whether validated tests showing racial differences can be used for employment decisions.
• The Supreme Court case Grutter v. Bollinger (2003) addressed whether diversity could justify using race in admissions and if the University of Michigan Law School used a quota system.

Litigation

• Rules governing behavior are created not only by legislatures but also through court decisions (litigation).
• Litigation can bring important issues to the attention of legislators, stimulating new laws.
• The PARC v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (1971) and Mills v. Board of Education of District of Columbia (1972) cases highlighted the need for federal law ensuring educational opportunities for children with disabilities.
• Litigation is often referred to as “judge-made law” as rulings by judges are based on prior rulings and expert witnesses.
• Psychologists as expert witnesses can testify on various matters, including competence in criminal cases or parenting skills in divorce cases.
• Expert witnesses can be called on various issues depending on the case, raising questions like: Who qualifies as an expert? and How much weight should be given to their testimony?
• The Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals (1993) case impacted the admissibility of expert testimony in court, particularly regarding scientific evidence.
• The case originated from a lawsuit claiming that the drug Bendectin caused birth defects in children.
• The trial judge ruled against the plaintiffs, saying their research didn’t meet admissibility criteria, leading to an appeal to the Supreme Court.
• The Frye v. United States (1923) ruling required general acceptance in the scientific community for research to be admissible.
• Rule 702 (1975) in the Federal Rules of Evidence allowed additional expert testimony regarding the admissibility of research or testimony, even if it was not universally accepted.
• The Daubert case questioned whether the trial judge acted properly by excluding certain research under Rule 702.
• The Supreme Court ruled that the trial judge had discretion to determine what qualifies as scientific evidence and that judges have a gatekeeping function in deciding admissibility.
• Daubert ruling superseded Frye, making opposing expert testimony admissible even if it hasn’t been generally accepted in the scientific community.
• Judges can now consider various factors, such as testing, error rates, and reliability in determining the admissibility of expert testimony.
• General Electric Co. v. Joiner (1997) emphasized that trial courts must exclude unreliable expert testimony.
• Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael (1999) expanded the Daubert principles to include all experts, even those who base their testimony on personal experience rather than formal research.
• The reliance on Frye or Daubert depends on the jurisdiction of the legal proceeding.
• The implications of Daubert are far-reaching for psychologists providing expert testimony in cases such as mental capacity, emotional distress, personnel decisions, child custody, and termination of parental rights.

The Concerns of the Profession

• In 1895, the American Psychological Association (APA) formed its first committee on mental measurement to investigate testing practices.
• In 1906, another APA committee on measurements was formed to further study testing-related issues.
• In 1916 and again in 1921, symposia were held on the expanding uses of tests (e.g., Mentality Tests, 1916; Intelligence and Its Measurement, 1921).
• In 1954, the APA published its Technical Recommendations for Psychological Tests and Diagnostic Tests, outlining testing standards and technical recommendations.
• In 1955, the National Educational Association (in collaboration with the National Council on Measurements Used in Education, now called National Council on Measurement) published its Technical Recommendations for Achievement Tests.
• Collaboration between these organizations led to the development of detailed testing standards and guidelines, which would be periodically updated.
• The APA and related professional organizations have produced numerous reference works and publications on ethical, sound practices in psychological testing and assessment.
• These organizations have addressed a variety of thorny questions related to testing practices.

Test-user qualifications

• In 1950, the APA Committee on Ethical Standards for Psychology published a report called Ethical Standards for the Distribution of Psychological Tests and Diagnostic Aids.
• This report defined three levels of tests based on the knowledge required to use them:
  • Level A: Tests that can be administered, scored, and interpreted with a manual and general orientation (e.g., achievement or proficiency tests).
  • Level B: Tests requiring technical knowledge of test construction, statistics, and psychology (e.g., aptitude tests, adjustment inventories).
  • Level C: Tests requiring substantial understanding of testing, psychological fields, and supervised experience (e.g., projective tests, individual mental tests).
• The report also included training requirements for each test level.
• Some test publishers still use this classification, but many do not.
• Professional standards from APA, National Association of School Psychologists, and other organizations state that psychological tests should only be used by qualified persons.
• There is an ethical mandate to prevent misuse of tests and the information they provide, set forth in the Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education.
• The Code presents standards for test developers in four areas: (1) developing/selecting tests, (2) interpreting scores, (3) striving for fairness, and (4) informing testtakers.
• APA has been involved in litigation to restrict the use of psychological tests to qualified personnel.
• Skeptics view this litigation as self-serving, while a more realistic view is that it benefits society by ensuring qualified professionals conduct assessments.
• Psychologist licensing law from APA (1987) serves as a model for state legislatures but does not define psychological testing.
• It may be time to rewrite model legislation to clearly define psychological testing and psychological assessment with distinct terms for test-user qualifications and psychological assessor qualifications.
• Confusion between psychological testing and psychological assessment has led to legal conflicts, with non-professionals possibly being qualified to use tests but not qualified for psychological assessment.
• Psychological assessment requires skills, expertise, and training in psychology and measurement beyond what is needed for psychological testing.

Testing people with disabilities

• Difficulties similar to those encountered with linguistic and cultural minorities arise when testing people with disabling conditions.
• These difficulties may include:
  • (1) Transforming the test into a form that can be taken by the testtaker.
  • (2) Transforming responses of the testtaker so they are scorable.
  • (3) Meaningfully interpreting the test data.
• The nature of the transformation will depend on the type of disability.
• Some test stimuli are difficult to translate. For example, test items with artwork may not be translatable for blind testtakers.
• When tests are modified for populations they were not originally intended for, decisions must be made on:
  • How the test materials will be modified.
  • The standards of evaluation to be applied.
  • How the results will be interpreted.
• Professional assessors do not always agree on how to address these issues.
• A complex issue involves a terminally ill individual’s request for aid in dying, which may require a psychological evaluation.
• In such cases, life or death may depend on the findings of the assessment.
• Currently, only Oregon has a law regarding aid in dying requests.
• If other states adopt similar laws, psychological assessors will play a larger role in these cases.
• Ethical and related issues surrounding this phenomenon are discussed in the chapter’s Everyday Psychometrics.

Computerized test administration, scoring, and interpretation

• Computer-assisted psychological assessment (CAPA) has become more common, with many psychological tests available on disc or for online administration and scoring.
• CAPA has brought simplicity, convenience, and a wide range of testing activities to the industry, but there are challenges.
• Major issues with CAPA include:
  • Access to test administration, scoring, and interpretation software: Despite safeguards to prevent unauthorized copying, software may still be copied easily, unlike test kits with tangible items.
  • Comparability of pencil-and-paper and computerized versions of tests: Many tests now have both paper-and-pencil and computerized formats, but the comparability of these formats has not always been thoroughly researched.
  • Value of computerized test interpretations: Computerized scoring and interpretation are common, but the value of the interpretations is often questioned due to their quality and accuracy.
  • Unprofessional, unregulated “psychological testing” online: Many internet sites offer online psychological tests, but most do not meet psychologists’ standards.
  • These unregulated tests could contribute to public skepticism about psychological tests.
• Online availability of unverified tests increases the risk of administering a non-bona fide test.
• The International Test Commission, based in Florida, developed the “International Guidelines on Computer-Based and Internet-Delivered Testing” to address technical, quality, security, and related issues.
• Although the guidelines have limitations, they represent progress in nongovernmental regulation of online testing.

The Rights of Testtakers

The right of informed consent

• Rights of testtakers include the right of informed consent, the right to be informed of test findings, the right to privacy and confidentiality, and the right to the least stigmatizing label.
• Testtakers must know why they are being evaluated, how the test data will be used, and who will have access to the information.
• Informed consent must be given with full knowledge and in language that the testtaker can understand.
• For very young testtakers (e.g., 2 or 3 years old) or those with limited language ability, the consent disclosure should be simple and age-appropriate.
• If a testtaker cannot provide informed consent, consent may be obtained from a parent or legal representative. The consent must be written and should include:
  • The general purpose of the testing.
  • The specific reason for the current evaluation.
  • The types of instruments to be used.
• Many school districts send written consent forms home with children before testing, often offering private assessments upon request.
• In legally mandated testing (e.g., court-ordered testing), obtaining consent is often a courtesy rather than a necessity.
• A gray area exists in research and experimental situations where complete disclosure may contaminate the test data, leading to the use of deception in certain scenarios.
• Deception may be used to simulate rare conditions, like testing how an emergency worker reacts under emergency conditions.
• In cases where full disclosure is not given before testing, a minimum amount of information is shared (e.g., “This testing is part of an experiment on obedience to authority”).
• Debriefing and full disclosure are required after the testing is complete.
• The APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (2002) provides guidelines regarding deception:
  • Deception should only be used if absolutely necessary.
  • Deception should not cause emotional distress to participants.
  • Participants should always be fully debriefed after the testing.

The right to be informed of test findings

• In the past, many psychological assessors, especially clinicians, kept test results superficial and focused only on “positive” findings to avoid causing anxiety or crisis in testtakers.
• This approach was intended to ensure testtakers left feeling “pleased and satisfied.”
• The practice has changed, and now providing realistic information about test performance is not only ethically and legally mandated but also beneficial from a therapeutic perspective.
• Testtakers have the right to be informed, in language they can understand, of the nature of the findings and recommendations based on their test results.
• If test results or recommendations are voided (e.g., due to irregularities in administration), testtakers must be informed.
• Communication of results is crucial, as revealing sensitive information about a person’s ability, personality, or values may have unintended consequences.
• Test users must be sensitive to the situation when providing test information, including the purpose of the test, the meaning of the score relative to other testtakers, and the limitations and margins of error of the test.
• Whether results are communicated in person or in writing, a qualified professional should be available to answer questions and address concerns from testtakers or their parents.
• Counseling resources should ideally be available for individuals who react negatively to the information presented.

The right to privacy and confidentiality

• The right to privacy allows individuals to control the extent to which they share or withhold personal information, such as attitudes, beliefs, behavior, and opinions (Shah, 1969).
• Privileged information is protected by law from disclosure in legal proceedings and includes communications between individuals in special relationships (e.g., lawyer-client, doctor-patient, priest-penitent, husband-wife).
• Privilege serves the public interest by ensuring individuals feel safe to communicate openly with professionals like attorneys, physicians, psychologists, and clergy.
• Confidentiality refers to the duty to protect communications outside of court, while privilege protects against disclosure in judicial proceedings.
• Privilege is not absolute, and courts can compel the disclosure of certain information, leading to legal consequences for refusal.
• In the psychologist-client relationship, privilege belongs to the client, not the psychologist, and clients can direct psychologists to disclose information to third parties like attorneys or insurance carriers.
• Psychologists may be ethically compelled to disclose information if it prevents harm to the client or others (e.g., plans for suicide or homicide).
• The Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of California (1974) case established that therapists must warn potential victims if a client poses a serious threat, ending protective privilege in the face of public peril.
• Clinicians may have a duty to warn of other threats, such as potential AIDS infection from an HIV-positive client.
• Psychologists must take reasonable precautions to safeguard test data, whether stored in physical filing cabinets or electronically, to ensure confidentiality.
• Institutions should have policies about the length of time test records are stored and when they will be deemed outdated or invalid.
• The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) of 1996 regulates the use of patients’ personal medical information by health providers and plans.
• Psychotherapy notes require stricter protection under HIPAA, as affirmed by the Jaffee v. Redmond (1996) case, which protected therapist-patient communications in federal courts.
• Psychotherapy notes are separate from other medical records and are afforded greater privacy protection.
• Assessment professionals should obtain specific consent before releasing assessment-related information, especially regarding data from interviews, behavioral observations, and role plays.

The right to the least stigmatizing label

• The Standards recommend assigning the least stigmatizing labels when reporting test results to avoid negative effects on the testtaker.
• A case illustrating this principle involves Jo Ann Iverson, a 9-year-old with claustrophobia, who was evaluated by psychologist Arden Frandsen using the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test.
• Frandsen’s report labeled Jo Ann as “feeble-minded, at the high-grade moron level,” which led to embarrassing rumors circulating about her mental condition.
• Jo Ann’s mother, Carmel Iverson, filed a libel (defamation) suit against Frandsen, but the court ruled in favor of the psychologist, stating that the evaluation was a professional report made in good faith.
• While the lawsuit was unsuccessful, the Iversons’ case highlights the anguish caused by stigmatizing labels, even if they were likely copied from the test manual.
• The Iversons may have won the lawsuit had the cause of action been breach of confidentiality, as the rumors started from the school guidance counselor’s office.
• Testtakers have rights, but students of testing and assessment also have the right to learn more about the technical aspects of measurement.

Psychological testing is a field characterised by the use of samples of behaviour in order to assess psychological construct(s), such as cognitive and emotional functioning, about a given individual. The technical term for the science behind psychological testing is psychometrics. By samples of behaviour, one means observations of an individual performing tasks that have usually been prescribed beforehand, which often means scores on a test. These responses are often compiled into statistical tables that allow the evaluator to compare the behaviour of the individual being tested to the responses of a norm group.

Psychological tests are written, visual, or verbal evaluations administered to assess the cognitive and emotional functioning of children and adults. It is “an objective and standardized measure of a sample of behaviour.” Psychological testing is a standard procedure of measurement designed to measure characteristics, abilities, personality, etc. They are used to measure the quantified characteristics and have standards.

According to Anastasi (2003), psychological test can be defined as a sample of an individual’s behaviour, obtained under standard conditions and scored according to a fixed set of rules that provide a numeric score. Test can be used to compare the same individual on one or more tests; at the same time two or more persons can also be assessed and compared. A psychological test is characterised by a standardized procedure of administration, scoring, and interpretation which are uniform across the different examiner and settings.

Thus a psychological test is an instrument designed to measure unobserved constructs, also known as latent variables. Psychological tests are typically, but not necessarily, a series of tasks or problems that the respondent has to solve. Psychological tests can strongly resemble questionnaire which are also designed to measure unobserved constructs, but differ in that psychological tests ask for a respondent’s maximum performance whereas a questionnaire asks for the respondent’s typical performance. A useful psychological test must be both valid (i.e., there is evidence to support the specified interpretation of the test results) and reliable (i.e., internally consistent or give consistent results over time, across raters, etc.).

Difference between Psychological Assessment and Psychological Testing

A term closely associated with assessment is psychological test, which Anastasi and Urbina (1997) defined as an objective and standardized measure of a sample of behaviour. Cronbach’s (1990) definition is similar, with a test being a systematic procedure for observing behaviour and describing it with the aid of numerical scales or fixed categories. As these two similar definitions suggest, there are some commonalities among all the definitions of assessment. They all discuss getting a measure or using some type of measurement. In assessment, counselors often want an indication of quantity (e.g., How depressed is the client? Are the test scores high enough to get into Harvard?).

In simple terms, many test questions are related to whether there is a lot of “something” or just a little .In counseling, practitioners are often interested in human constructs such as emotions, intelligence, personality factors, self-esteem, and aptitudes. These constructs, however, cannot be directly measured. For example, individuals cannot give a pint of emotions in the same way they can give a pint of blood. Humans, for the most part, indicate their emotions by their behaviour, their statements, or even the answers they give on a questionnaire.

It is important to remember that speaking and responding to a questionnaire are behaviours. When working with clients, a counselor must consider this sample of behaviour and then reflect on two important questions: first, is the sample of behaviour indicative of how the person usually behaves, and second, are the inferences being made correct?

Psychological assessment is similar to psychological testing but usually involves a more comprehensive assessment of the individual. Psychological assessment is a process that involves the integration of information from multiple sources, such as tests of normal and abnormal personality, tests of ability or intelligence, tests of interests or attitudes, as well as information from personal interviews. Collateral information is also collected about personal, occupational, or medical history, such as from records or from interviews with parents, spouses, teachers, or previous therapists or physicians. A psychological test is one of the sources of data used within the process of assessment; usually more than one test is used. Many psychologists do some level of assessment when providing services to clients or patients, and may use for example, simple checklists to assess some traits or symptoms, but psychological assessment is a more complex, detailed, in-depth process. Typical types of focus for psychological assessment are to provide a diagnosis for treatment settings; to assess a particular area of functioning or disability often for school settings; to help select type of treatment or to assess treatment outcomes; to help courts decide issues such as child custody or competency to stand trial; or to help assess job applicants or employees and provide career development counseling or training.

A distinction is there in assessment and testing given by AERA, APA and NCME (1999). It defines assessment as a broader term referring to a process that integrates test information with information from other sources e.g. from schools, hospitals etc.

Historically, testing and assessment have been important foundations of counseling and applied psychology. Tests have important roles both as tools to facilitate the goals of counseling and for assessment.

Psychological tests are used to assess a variety of mental abilities and attributes, including achievement and ability, personality, and neurological functioning.

For children, academic achievement, ability, and intelligence tests may be used as tools in school placement, in determining the presence of a learning disability or a developmental delay, in identifying giftedness, or in tracking intellectual development. Intelligence testing may also be used with teens and young adults to determine vocational ability (e.g., in career counseling).

Personality tests are administered for a wide variety of reasons, from diagnosing psychopathology (e.g., personality disorder, depressive disorder) to screening job candidates. They may be used in an educational setting to determine personality strengths and weaknesses.

Tests are thus used in the selection, classification, diagnosis, prediction. The counselor makes use of it to determine client’s behaviour, know her/his personality and help the client in making educational and vocational planning.

In short it can be said that the Psychological tests are formalized measures of mental functioning. Most are objective and quantifiable; however, certain projective tests may involve some level of subjective interpretation. Also known as inventories, measurements, questionnaires, and scales, psychological tests are administered in a variety of settings, including preschools, primary and secondary schools, colleges and universities, hospitals, healthcare settings, and social agencies. They come in a variety of formats, including written, verbal, and computer administered.

A test used in counseling/guidance or for training and development is considered good if the following can be said about it:

1. The test measures what it claims to measure. For example, a test of mental ability does in fact measure mental ability and not some other characteristic.
2. The test measures what it claims to measure consistently or reliably. This means that if a person were to take the test again, the person would get a similar test score.
3. The test is purpose-relevant. In other words, the test measures one or more characteristics that are important to specific career decisions or for predicting or monitoring training and development outcomes.
4. By using the test, more effective decisions can be made by and about individuals. For example, an interest inventory helps you to guide a client toward careers in which he or she is more likely to be satisfied. A mechanical aptitude test may help you predict who would benefit from mechanical training.

Thus, a good test is both reliable and valid, and has good norms. Test reliability and validity are two technical properties of a test that indicate the quality and usefulness of the test. These are the two most important features of a test. The counselor should examine these features when evaluating the suitability of the test. Reliability refers to the consistency of the test results. Validity refers to how well a test measures what it says it does. Norms are designed to tell you what the result of measurement (a number) means in relation to other results (numbers).

The “normative sample” should be very representative of the sample of people who will be given the test. Thus, if a test is to be used on the general population, the normative sample should be large, include people from ethnically and culturally diverse backgrounds, and include people from all levels of income and educational status.

A good psychological test is thus a standardized test with a manual which gives complete information about the development of the test, administration, scoring and interpretation of the results.

However, whenever you use a psychological test you should keep in mind a few things. Good test use requires:

• Comprehensive assessment using history and test scores
• Acceptance of the responsibility for proper test use
• Consideration of the Standard Error of Measurement and other psychometric knowledge
• Maintaining integrity of test results (such as the correct use of cut-off scores)
• Accurate scoring
• Appropriate use of norms
• Willingness to provide interpretive feedback and guidance to test takers.