Concept, Meaning & Definition of Social Change

According to MacIver and Page, social change is a change in social relationship. It is a process responsive to many types of changes, to changes in man-made conditions of living, to changes in attitudes and beliefs of men and to changes that go beyond human control to the biological and physical nature of things.

To Lundberg, “Social change refers to any modification in established patterns of inert-human relationships and standards of conduct.” In a similar vein, Judson R. Landis writes, “Social change refers to change in the structure and functioning of the social relationships of society.” Koenig feels “Social change refers to the modifications which occur in the life patterns of people”.

According to M.E. Jones, “Social change is a term used to describe variations in or modifications of any aspect of social processes, social patterns, social interaction or social organisation”. No doubt change identifies a wide canvas or contour for development, progress transformation, growth, mobilisation and soon. There are many perspectives that are used to explain social change. These are mentioned in brief as follows:

1. In the second half of the nineteenth century, the concept of evolution assumed a central place in explanations of all forms of human development in both the social and biological sciences for example, Morgan’s three epochs of humanity i.e., savagery, barbarism and civilisation and Auguste Comte’s ideas of human intellect.

Comte argues, human intellect passing through three historical phases of sophistication the theological, the metaphysical and the positive. Spencer’s view is that of human societies passing through a course of natural development, from relatively simple patterns of organisation to more complex structures, characterised by an increasing specialisation of parts.

2. The conflict perspective can best be understood in terms of tension and conflict between groups and individuals and here change is viewed as an intrinsic process in society. To Karl Marx, social changes take place based on the antagonistic class relations based on ownership of the means of production; between the haves and the have-nots and that this class struggle culminates into a revolutionary change in society with its progression from ancient to feudal and finally from feudal to capitalist stage of development in society.

According to Coser, conflict is an inevitable part of the socialisation process and no social groups can be completely harmonious as individuals have a predisposition for love as well as hate. Thus conflict acts as a creative force that stimulates change in society, constructive or destructive. While Karl Marx has identified class and class conflict based on unequal distribution of material resources, Daharendorf has identified the same in terms of unequal distribution of authority. According to Daharendorf, all groups in society are divided into those who have authority and those who do not and conflict arises because of unequal distribution of authority in society’. This conflict on unequal distribution of authority leads to change in society.

3. To structural-functional theorists, society consists of interrelated parts that work together for the purpose of maintaining internal balance. It perceives roles as locating individuals in social positions, and providing them with articulated sets of expectations specifying the rights and duties of occupants. This perspective is oriented towards order and stability and preservation of the status quo. Durkheim has observed change in terms of change in the nature of division of labour in society. He believed that the change in labour from traditional society to modern society was the cause for social change.

According to Talcott Parsons, society is a system surrounded by three other systems — personality, the organism and culture. There is social equilibrium when the boundaries of the three systems are maintained and social change results from boundary breaking. Ogburn’s theory reasons that societies operate as homogeneous mechanisms and that changes that upset the equilibrium in one part tends to produce compensating changes to restore that equilibrium. To him all aspects of culture, i.e., material or non-material do not change at an equal rate. This creates the phenomenon of cultural lag that ultimately leads to change in society.

4. These theories posit that activities of people constitute the essence of change in society and modifications in the behaviour can facilitate change and play an essential role in social development. Max Weber thought that modernity was replacing traditional views with a rational way of thinking. In pre-industrial societies traditional views obstructed change, things were the way they were because that is what everyone believed and no one questioned it.

In modern societies, things were questioned and answers were calculated. David McClelland focused his study on what he called need for achievement, symbolised by V achievement. According to him, the greater the development of the ‘n’ factor the greater the economic development in any society. Consequently, there is certain behaviour characteristics exhibited by people with this V factor, such as individualism, energetic innovative activity, drive for success and so on. In simple words, individual economic achievement produces economic growth.

The Meaning of Social Change:

The word “change” denotes a difference in anything observed over some period of time. Social change, therefore, would mean observable differences in any social phenomena over any period of time.

The following are some of its definitions:

(i) Jones. “Social change is a term used to describe variations in, or modifications of, any aspect of social processes, social patterns, social interaction or social organisation.”

(ii) Mazumdar, H. T. “Social change may be defined as a new fashion or mode, either modifying or replacing the old, in the life of a people, or in the operation of a society.”

(iii) Gillin and Gillin. “Social changes are variations from the accepted modes of life; whether due to alteration in geographical conditions, in cultural equipment, composition of the population or ideologies and whether brought about by diffusion or inventions within the group.”

(iv) Davis. By “Social change is meant only such alterations as occur in social organisation, that is, structure and functions of society.”

(v) Merrill and Eldredge. “Social change means that large number of persons are engaging in activities that differ from those which they or their immediate forefathers engaged in some time before.”

(vi) MacIver and Page. “…Our direct concern as sociologists is with social relationships. It is the change in these relationships which alone we shall regard as social change.”

(vii) M. D. Jenson. “Social change may be defined as modification in ways of doing and thinking of people.”

(viii) Koenig, S. “Social change refers to the modifications which occur in the life patterns of a people.”

(ix) Lundberg and others. “Social change refers to any modification in established patterns of inter human relationships and standards of conduct.”

(x) Anderson and Parker. “Social change involves alteration in the structure or functioning of social forms or processes themselves.”

(xi) Ginsberg, M. “By social change, I understand a change in social structure e.g., the size of a society, the composition or balance of its parts or the type of its organisation.”

On the basis of these definitions it may be concluded that social change refers to the modifications which take place in the life patterns of people. It does not refer to all the changes going on in the society. The changes in art, language, technology; philosophy etc., may not be included in the term ‘Social change’ which should be interpreted in a narrow sense to mean alterations in the field of social relationships.

Social relationships are social processes, social patterns and social interactions. Thus social change will mean variations of any aspect of social processes, social patterns, social interactions or social organisation. It is a change in the institutional and normative structure of society.

Nature of Social Change:

The main characteristics of the nature of social change are as follows:

(i) Social change is a universal phenomenon:

Social change occurs in all societies. No society remains completely static. This is true of all societies, primitive as well as civilized. Society exists in a universe of dynamic influences.

The population changes, technologies expand, material equipment changes, ideologies and values take on new components and institutional structures and functions undergo reshaping. The speed and extent of change may differ from society to society. Some change rapidly, others change slowly.

(ii) Social change is community change:

Social change does not refer to the change in the life of an individual or the life patterns of several individuals. It is a change which occurs in the life of the entire community. In other words, only that change can be called social change whose influence can be felt in a community form. Social change is social and not individual.

(iii) Speed of social change is not uniform:

While social change occurs in all societies, its speed is not uniform in every society. In most societies it occurs so slowly that it is often not noticed by those who live in them. Even in modern societies there seems to be little or no change in many areas. Social change in urban areas is faster than in rural areas.

(iv) Nature and speed of social change is affected by and related to time factor:

The speed of social change is not uniform in each age or period in the same society. In modern times the speed of social change is faster today than before 1947. Thus, the speed of social change differs from age to age.

The reason is that the factors which cause social change do not remain uniform with the change in times. Before 1947 there was less industrialization in India, after 1947 India has become more industrialized. Therefore, the speed of social change after 1947 is faster than before 1947.

(v) Social change occurs as an essential law:

Change is the law of nature. Social change also is natural. It may occur either in the natural course or as a result of planned efforts. By nature we desire change. Our needs keep on changing. To satisfy our desire for change and our changing needs social change becomes a necessity. The truth is that we are anxiously waiting for a change. According to Green, ‘The enthusiastic response of change has become almost a way of life.”

(vi) Definite prediction of social change is not possible:

It is difficult to make any prediction about the exact forms of social change. There is no inherent law of social change according to which it would assume definite forms. We may say that on account of the social reform movement untouchability will be abolished from the Indian society; that the basis and ideals of marriage will change due to the marriage laws passed by the government; that industrialization will increase the speed of urbanisation but we cannot predict the exact forms which social relationships will assume in future. Likewise it cannot be predicted as to what shall be our attitudes, ideas, norms and values in future.

(vii) Social change shows chain-reaction sequence:

A society’s pattern of living is a dynamic system of inter-related parts. Therefore, change in one of these parts usually reacts on others and those on additional ones until they bring a change in the whole mode of life of many people. For example, industrialism has destroyed the domestic system of production.

The destruction of domestic system of production brought women from the home to the factory and the office. The employment of women meant their independence from the bondage of man. It brought a change in their attitudes and idea. It meant a new social life for women. It consequent affected every part of the family life.

(viii) Social change results from the interaction of a number of factors:

Generally, it is thought that a particular factor like changes in technology, economic development or climatic conditions causes social change. This is called monistic theory which seeks to interpret social change in terms of one single factor.

But the monistic theory does not provide an adequate explanation of the complex phenomenon of social change. As a matter of fact, social change is the consequence of a number of factors. A special factor may trigger a change but it is always associated with other factors that make the triggering possible.

The reason is that social phenomena are mutually interdependent. None stand out as isolated forces that bring about change of themselves. Rather each is an element in a system. Modification of vale part influences the other parts and these influence the rest, until the whole is involved.

(ix) Social changes are chiefly those of modification or of replacement:

Social changes may be broadly categorised as modifications or replacements. It may be modification of physical goods or social relationships. For example, the form of our breakfast food has changed. Though we eat the same basic materials which we ate earlier, wheat, eggs, corn, but their form is changed. Ready-to-eat-cornflakes, breads, omelets are substituted for the form in which these same materials were consumed in yester years.

There may also be modifications of social relationships. The old authoritarian family has become the small equalitarian family, the one room school has become a centralized school. Our ideas about women’s rights, religion, government and co-education stand modified today.

Change also takes the form of replacement. A new material or non-material form supplants an old one Horses have been replaced by automobiles. Similarly, old ideas have been replaced by new ideas. The germ theory of medicine has replaced older views of the cause of disease. Democracy has replaced aristocracy.

Factors of Social Change

1. Physical Environment:

Certain geographic changes sometimes produce great social change. Climate, storms, social erosion, earthquakes, floods, droughts etc., definitely affect social life and induce social change. Human life is closely bound up with the geographical conditions of the earth.

Human history is full of examples that flourishing civilisations fell prey to natural calamities. The distribution of population over various regions, the variations in the population densities, the agricultural production, flora and fauna, the joys and hardships—all indicate a change when a change in the physical environment occurs.

What to talk of rise and fall of civilisations, even our day-to-day life—our clothes, eating material and habits, shelter design etc., all are influenced by the geographical conditions. Generally, changes in physical environment force migration of people in large numbers and this brings major changes in social life and cultural values also. Migration itself encourages change, for it brings a group into a new environment, subject to its new social contacts, and confronts it with new problems.

Though physical environment is an important factor which deeply affects social life, still it cannot be regarded as the only factor responsible for the growth of human society. This extreme approach was laid down by some geographical determinists (Buckle, Huntington, Miss Sample, J. Huxley etc.), who held that geographical setting ultimately governs the form of society (family, marriage, economy, religion, government) and explains social change. But this is not true today.

Now man is in the position to affect change in his physical environment. Men adapt themselves to their environment but they have the capacity to transform their physical environment according to their needs and requirements. Bennett and Tumin (1949) aptly remarked: “It is perhaps as reasonable, if not more so to insist that man modifies his physical environment rather than the environment modifies man.”

2. Demographic (biological) Factor:

Broadly speaking, demography is concerned with the size and structure of human population. The social structure of a society is closely related with the changes in the size, composition and distri­bution of population. The size of the population is based mainly upon three factors—birth rate, death rate and migration (immigration and emigration).

The composition of population depends upon variables like age, sex, marital status, literacy etc. Changes in demographic structure, which may be caused by changes in mortality rates, will produce changes in the ratio of breadwinners to dependents.

Such a change can have consequences for the structure of family, kinship, political and other institutions. The size of population affects each of us quite personally. Whether we are born into a growing or a shrinking population has a bearing on our education, the age at which we marry, our ability to get a job, the taxes we pay and many other factors.

Population analysis shows that there is a relationship between population changes and economic, social and cultural variables like poverty, illiteracy, ill-health, family structure, forms of marriage, work etc. Population growth is the most important factor in poverty.

Poverty is related with health and the size of the family also. Nations with large population (e.g., China and India) are more poverty- stricken than the countries which have not much population. Sex imbalance affects the forms of marriage (monogamy or polygyny). It is seen that communities, which have more males than females, resorted to polyandry system. Polygyny was generally found in such communities where females were in more numbers than males.

The population of every society is always changing both in numbers as well as in composition. Population changes have occurred all through human history because of migration, war, pesti­lence, changing mores etc. In modern times, adoption of two artificial ways to population growth, viz., birth control and abortion are also affecting the number and composition of population structure.

The decline of both the birth rate and the death rate bring social transfor­mation. With changes in size go changes in composition. While the birth rate is falling, the proportion of younger people in the proportion of youth’s declines and that elders advances significant social changes occurs.

3. Cultural Factor:

It is an established fact that there is an intimate connection between our beliefs and social institutions, our values and social relationships. Values, beliefs, ideas, institutions are the basic elements of a culture. Certainly, all cultural changes involve social change.

Social and the cultural aspects are closely interwoven. Thus, any change in the culture (ideas, values, beliefs etc.) brings a corresponding change in the whole social order. Social institutions cannot live on life shells within which life is extinct.

Social systems are directly or indirectly the creations of cultural values. The history of culture offers many evidences which confirm the role of culture. A religious doctrine, which persisted with variations throughout many centuries, has affected the course of society. For instance, a certain attitude toward sex formulated by the Church Fathers in the early Middle Ages still hold good in the Catholic sect.

Culture gives speed and direction to social change and deter­mines the limit beyond which social change cannot occur”. (Dawson and Gettys, 1948). If we choose to travel by a ship, the direction in which we travel is not predestinated by the design of the ship but it is the culture that decides the direction and the destination both. The port we sail to remains a cultural choice. Cultural factor is not only responsive to technological change but also acts back on it so as to influence its direction and its character.

Cultural change in society has two major aspects:

(a) Cultural change by discovery and invention, and

(b) Cultural change by diffusion and borrowing.

The first comes from within a society and culture, and the second from another culture outside of the society. A discovery or an invention adds to the fund of our verified knowledge which later on becomes a factor of social change. Knowledge of bacterial infection brought about many changes in the behaviour of people in the form of prevention and cure of disease.

Socio-cultural changes are also brought about by people from other cultures all over the world. Diffusion is the spread of cultural traits or patterns from group to group. Borrowing refers to the adoption of a cultural trait by people whose culture did not have that cultural trait. We have borrowed many cultural traits (such as use of knife and fork in eating) from Western culture.

Culture operates not only directly as a source of change but also indirectly, by its impact on the utilitarian order. This idea was best exemplified by a German sociologist Max Weber in his study of sociology of religion.

In his study ‘The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism’ (1930), he saw that there is a direct relationship between the practical ethics of a religion and the character of its economic system, but he refused to accept the position that the letter determines the former as argued by Karl Marx. (Marx believed that the nature of a society is determined by the manner in which economy is owned and organised.) Though Weber too appreciated the importance of economic factors, but he did not ascribe to them the importance that they have in Marxian theory. For Marx economic influences were paramount and determined ell the rest, including religion, whereas for Weber economic phenomena themselves rest upon a broad ideological base and particularly upon religion.

In his above mentioned study, Weber asserted that the devel­opment of modern capitalism could be attributed to Protestant reformation, particularly Calvinism. Protestantism emphasised the autonomy and independence of the individual rather than dependence on the church, priesthood and ritual. Weber argued that Calvinist Protestantism motivated men to seek worldly success. It laid emphasis on rational calculation, the willingness to accumulate for long-term profit and success and the emphasis on entrepreneurial success as a virtue.

Weber maintained that the ideas, ideals and attitudes towards work (work is virtue, time lost, money lost etc.,), savings and life played an important role in the economic devel­opment of Western Europe and USA Protestanism provided much of the cultural content of early capitalism—individualism, achievement motivation, hostility to inherited wealth and luxury, legitimation of entrepreneurial vocations, opposition to tradition and superstition, a commitment to organisation and calculation in personal and public life.

In brief, Protestanism provided an element in the rationalisation (an important requirement of capitalism) of Western society. Weber did not simply explained capitalist development in terms of religious belief, but argued that the religious factor, if combined with others, of a political, economic and social nature, can produce a certain type of social change.

4. Ideational Factor:

Among the cultural factors affecting social change in modern times, the development of science and secularisation of thought have contributed a lot to the development of the critical and innovative character of the modern outlook. We no longer follow many customs or habits merely because they have the age-old authority of tradition. On the contrary, our ways of life have increasingly become on the basis of rationality.

Some writers have interpreted social change at ideational level and asserted that all social change is ideational. They argued that ideas could influence the course of social change. For them, ideational changes are important contributory factors to many or most types of social change. Ideas and ideologies together are powerful motivating forces in social change.

For instance, after independence, the directive principles—equality, fraternity, liberty and justice laid down in our constitution—have not only revolu­tionised the Indian society but it has even affected greatly the relations between the members of the family. Social philosophers, who believed in the force of ideas, argued that no material or social factors can produce change unless there is also a change in ideas within society or ideas about society and nature.

In modern times, not only the way we think, but the contents of ideas have also changed. Ideals of self-betterment, freedom, equality and democratic participation are largely creations of the past two/ three centuries. Such ideals have served to mobilise processes of social and political change, including reformation movements and revolutions.

5. Economic Factor:

Of economic influences, the most far-reaching is the impact of indus­trialisation. It has revolutionised the whole way of life, institutions, organisations and community life. In traditional production systems, levels of production were fairly static since they were geared to habitual, customary needs. Modern industrial capitalism promotes the constant revision of the technology of production, a process into which science is increasingly drawn.

The impact of industrialisation (science and technology) we can easily see on Indian family system (joint family) and caste system. (For detailed analysis of the influence of economic factor, see Marx’s views discussed in Economic Theory of Social Change).

6. Political Factor:

State is the most powerful organisation which regulates the social relationships. It has the power to legislate new laws, repeal old ones to bring social change in the society. Laws regarding child marriage, widow remarriage, divorce, inheritance and succession, untouch­ability are some of the examples which have brought many changes in the social structure of Indian society.

The type of political leadership and individuals in power also influences the rate and direction of social change. In many societies the political leadership controls the economy also. Scientific-technological and non-techno­logical change are also dependent on political development which indirectly affects social change.

There is a direct relationship between the type of political organisation and social change. In hunting and gathering societies, there were no political organisation capable of mobilising the community, as such; there were minimum changes in the societies. In all other types of society, however, the existence of distinct political agencies, such as chiefs, lords, kings and governments strongly affects the course of development of society takes. A ruler may choose to channel resources into building up his castle, for example, even when this impoverishes most of the population.

Political development in the last two or three centuries (in India especially after independence) has certainly influenced economic change as much as economic change has influenced politics. Govern­ments now play a major role in stimulating (and sometimes retarding) rates of economic growth. In all industrial societies there is high level of state intervention in production.

Change in Structure & Change of Structure

Change in structure and change of structure are two related concepts in sociology. Change in structure refers to any alteration in the social structure, which is the system of social relationships, institutions, and organizations that make up a society. Change of structure refers to a more fundamental transformation of the social structure, such as a revolution or a major economic crisis.

Examples of change in structure

• The introduction of new technologies can lead to changes in the structure of the workplace, as new jobs are created and old jobs are lost.
• Demographic changes, such as an aging population or an increase in immigration, can also lead to changes in the structure of society.
• Changes in social values and norms can also lead to changes in the social structure. For example, the decline of the traditional family structure has led to changes in the way that people live and work.

Examples of change of structure

• The Industrial Revolution was a major change of structure that transformed societies from agrarian to industrial economies.
• The French Revolution was a political change of structure that led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic.
• The Russian Revolution was a social and economic change of structure that led to the establishment of a communist state.

Theories of change in structure

There are a number of different theories about how and why change in structure occurs. Some theories focus on the role of individual actors, while others focus on the role of social forces and institutions.

One of the most influential theories of change in structure is conflict theory, which argues that change is driven by conflict between different social groups. Conflict theorists argue that the social structure is inherently unequal and that social change is necessary to achieve greater equality.

Another influential theory of change in structure is structural functionalism, which argues that change is driven by the need to adapt to changing social conditions. Structural functionalists argue that the social structure is a complex system of interconnected parts and that change in one part of the system can lead to changes in other parts of the system.

The importance of change in structure

Change in structure is an important concept in sociology because it helps us to understand how societies change over time. Change in structure can have a significant impact on the lives of individuals and groups, both positive and negative.

For example, the Industrial Revolution led to increased economic prosperity for many people, but it also led to new forms of social inequality and exploitation. The French Revolution led to greater political freedom and equality for many people, but it also led to violence and instability.

Change in structure is a complex and often unpredictable process. However, by studying change in structure, sociologists can develop a better understanding of how societies work and how they can be changed.

(1) Evolutionary Social Changes:

Evolutionary changes occur in course of a long period slowly and gradually and through evolutionary process. Such changes are not very drastic or remarkable. They proceed gradually like the process of conditioning and people learn to adjust with such changes gradually.

During our school and college days we were wearing saree and nobody then could dream of a married any a women wearing even Salwar and Kameez. We also used to put veil on our head, after marriage. I remember after my marriage in 1960,I used to put veil on my head for 35 years while in job and at home as well.

But this system has changed gradually. Now what about girls, married women is Orissa also wear Salwar Kameez, various other western dress and normally do not put veil on their head. This practice has been gradual and it has also been accepted by parents, relations in laws and other members of the society.

So much so that when today a girl attends, college wearing a saree others around look at her with raised eyebrows. Even some of her friends start joking at her calling her ‘Chudaa’. means, old fashioned.

Using lipstick and going to beauty parlours were considered as taboos so for women in Orissa some decades back. But now even college going girls including many women teachers go to school and colleges using various kinds of make-up. This is not considered a taboo now.

Gradually people have adjusted to such evolutionary changes may be due to urbanization and western influence. Some years back while I was in Government job and went to Delhi to attend a meeting, one of my lady colleagues who was also attending the same meeting wanted to go to a beauty parlour on our wayback to hotel.

She also asked me to join her. But she was astonished when I told her that I have never visited a beauty parlour even when I was young and I would not like to do it now.

Though I as a member of the society have accommodated to certain social changes which I consider beneficial or may be not harmful, I do not accommodate to those changes which are harmful for our society for our social values, culture and finally our conduct in the society. Still many people are there is the society who follow me.

People are able to adjust better with evolutionary social changes as the process is slow and gradual and hence easy to adjust. We also find today many male members wearing pants and shirts while sitting in Puja which was not acceptable several years back.

Use of Jeans and T. shirts in place of half pants and shirts have become common sights in schools and colleges, in public life and members of the society have gradually coped with this.

Even old and aged people of India are now found wearing such westernised dresses without any conflict or guilt feeling, since society has gradually accepted it. Similarly women going for higher education, studying in coeducational institutions, do join army, navy and airforce, for becoming pilots, going to space to join politics, doing various jobs which were earlier meant for men only.

Doing various jobs outside the domestic front, which were not acceptable several decades back for women is now accepted. Husbands in Indian society doing domestic chores which were not acceptable hundred years back have become common practices to-day in Indian societies. This has been possible due to gradual, evolutionary social change. This change has not occurred instantly, suddenly, abruptly.

Earlier many people did not pay tax, but now people have developed the mind set to pay tax considering it as legal and are paying tax voluntarily. These are simple examples of important evolutionary changes which occur gradually within sufficient time perspective.

(2). Development

Definition of Development:

• Development refers to a process that seeks to improve the well-being, quality of life, and standard of living of individuals and communities. It encompasses economic, social, and environmental dimensions.

Characteristics of Development:

• Economic Growth: Economic development often involves increasing a country’s GDP, creating job opportunities, and reducing poverty.
• Social Equity: Development seeks to reduce inequalities by improving access to education, healthcare, and social services.
• Environmental Sustainability: Sustainable development balances economic growth with ecological preservation.

Factors Influencing Development:

• Education: Quality education equips individuals with skills and knowledge to contribute to economic and social progress.
• Healthcare: Access to healthcare services improves life expectancy and overall health.
• Governance: Effective governance, including the rule of law and reduced corruption, can foster development.

Challenges in Development:

• Inequality: Disparities in income and access to resources can hinder development.
• Environmental Degradation: Unsustainable practices can harm ecosystems and future development prospects.

Examples of Development Initiatives:

• The United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) provide a global framework for development.
• Microfinance programs empower individuals in low-income communities to start businesses.

(3). Progress

Definition of Progress:

• Progress refers to the advancement of human society in various dimensions, including moral, technological, and cultural. It is a broader concept than development and encompasses both qualitative and quantitative improvements.

Characteristics of Progress:

• Technological Advancement: Progress is often associated with technological innovations that improve the quality of life and efficiency.
• Moral and Ethical Growth: Progress can manifest in increased awareness and adherence to moral and ethical principles.
• Cultural and Artistic Flourishing: Progress can be seen in the evolution of arts, culture, and intellectual pursuits.

Factors Influencing Progress:

• Innovation: Technological and scientific advancements drive progress by improving productivity and expanding possibilities.
• Education and Awareness: Increased education and access to information contribute to moral and ethical growth.

Challenges in Progress:

• Ethical Dilemmas: As technology advances, society faces ethical questions, such as those related to privacy and artificial intelligence.
• Cultural Conflict: Progress can lead to cultural clashes as traditional values and modernity intersect.

Examples of Progress Initiatives:

• The Enlightenment period in the 18th century marked a significant era of intellectual and moral progress.
• The development of renewable energy technologies represents progress in addressing environmental challenges.

(4) Revolutionary Changes:

It is the opposite of evolutionary change. When the changes in various sectors of our social system occur suddenly, drastically and sufficiently so as to differentiate it from gradual, slow change, it is called revolutionary social change.

The change in other words is great in degree, remarkable. The changes are such that they change the whole social order and the course or style of living, conduct and concept of do’s and donts. They are a matter of kind which occur due to some movement, revolution war, rapid technological changes, due to sudden change in social events.

They occur very quickly and within a short period or short duration. Let us take some examples. The changes in social structure and social system which occurred after various famous revolutions like the French, the Russian, the Chinese and the American Revolution and more recently the revolutionary changes that occurred or are still occurring in various Afro-Asian countries occur due to revolutions and movements India’s freedom movement or revolution for independence from ‘British Raj’ is a case of revolutionary movement.

Besides India’s small or big movements to eradicate the evils of colonialism, caste and class system economic disparity, tribal life style, superstition, to fight against suppression and oppression, are valid examples. Introduction of widow marriage, abolition of child marriage, and Satidaha Pratha, acceptance of intercaste and inter religion marriage are to some extent examples of revolutionary change.

In short, those remarkable and drastic changes which occur in the social system of a country or society in a very short span of time are possible due to revolution and movements big or small. Such drastic changes not only change the life style of people in a society, they also transform the relationship between individual across countries including within the countries.

Various cross cultural studies lead to support this observation. Attitude change is an important example of the effect of social change which may happen either due to evolutionary or revolutionary change.

Because of various social changes attitude of people also change towards the social system. It is therefore rightly viewed that man is not only an agent, but also a target of social change. In short, man is indispensable in bringing social changes as well as is influenced by the same social changes.

He makes or changes the society where he lives and is again influenced by such a changed society. Social activities who fight against dowry system and are able to pass a law in that regard are also influenced by the abolition of dowry system. When their sons and daughters get married they cannot claim or give dowry.

Cyclic Theory:

Another ancient notion of social change found side by side with the afore-mentioned one, is that human society goes through certain cycles. Looking to the cyclic changes of days and nights and of climates some sociologists like Spengler believe that society has a predetermined life cycle and has birth, growth, maturity, and decline.

Modern society is in the last stage. It is in its old age. But since history repeats itself, society after passing through all the stages, returns to the original stage, whence the cycle again begins. This concept is found in Hindu mythology, a cording to which Satyug will again start after Kaliyug is over. J.B. Bury in his The Idea of Progress, pointed out that this concept is also found in the teachings of stoic philosophers of Greece as well as in those of some of the Roman philosophers, particularly Marcus Aurelius.

The view that change takes place in a cyclical way has been accepted by some modern thinkers also who have given different versions of the cyclical theory. The French anthropologist and biologist Vacher de Lapouge held that race is the most important determinant of culture. Civilization, he maintained, develops and progresses when a society is composed of individuals belonging to superior races and declines when racially inferior people are absorbed into it.

Western civilization, according to him, is doomed to extinction because of the constant infiltration of foreign inferior elements and their increasing control over it. The German anthropologist Otto Ammon, the Englishman Houston Stewart Chamberlain and American Madison Grant arid Lothrop Stoddard also agreed with the view of Lapouge which may be called the theory of biological cycle.

Spengler developed another version of cyclical theory of social change. He analysed the history of various civilizations including the Egyptian, Greek and Roman and concluded that all civilizations pass through a similar cycle of birth, maturity and death. The western civilization is now on its decline which is unavoidable.

Vilfredo Pareto propounded the theory that societies pass through the periods of political vigour and decline which repeat themselves in cyclical fashion. The society according to him, consists of two types of people—one, who like to follow traditional ways whom he called rentiers, and those who like to take chances for attaining their ends whom he called as Speculators.

Political change is initiated by a strong aristocracy, the speculators who later lose their energy and become incapable of vigorous role. Thus ruling class eventually resort to tricks or to clever manipulations and they come to possess individuals characterized by the rentier mentality. The society declines, but at the same time speculators arises from among the subjugated to become the new ruling class and overthrow the old group. Then the cycle begins.

F. Stuart Chapin gave another version of cyclical change. He made the concept of accumulation the basis for his theory of social change. According to him, cultural change is “selectively accumulative in time.” He wrote, “The most hopeful approach to the concept of cultural change would seen to be to regard the process as selectively accumulative in time and cyclical or oscillatory in character.” Thus, according to Chapin, cultural change is both selectively accumulative and cyclical in character. He postulated a hypothesis of synchronous cyclical change. According to him, the different parts of culture go through a cycle of growth, vigour and decay.

If the cycles of the major parts, such as government and the family, coincide or synchronize, the whole culture will be in a state of integration, If they do not synchronize, the culture will be in a disintegrated condition. Growth and decay, according to Chapin, in cultural forms are as inescapable as they are in all living things.

Relying upon data drawn from the history of various civilizations, Sorokin concluded that civilizations fall into three major types namely, the ideational, the idealistic and the sensate. In the ideational type of civilization’ reality and value are conceived of in terms of a “supersensory and super-rational God”, while the sensory world appears as illusory.

In a word, ideational culture is god-ridden. In the idealistic type of culture, reality and value are regarded sensory as well as supersensory. This is a synthesis of ideational and the sensate. The thought and behaviour of man are partly anchored in the materialistic and are partly anchored with the other world.

In the sensate type of culture the whole way of life is characterized by a positivistic, materialistic outlook. Reality and value are merely what the senses perceive and beyond sense perception there is no reality. The western civilization, according to Sorokin, is now in an “overripe” sensate phase that must be supplanted by a new ideational system.

In recent times Arnold J. Toynbee, the noted English historian, has also propounded a cyclical theory of the history of world civilization. He maintained that civilizations pass through three stages, corresponding to youth, maturity and decline. The first is marked by a “response to challenge”, the second is a “time of troubles,” and the third is characterized by gradual degeneration.

He was also of the view that our civilization, although in the state of final downfall, can still ‘be saved by means of proper guidance by the “creative minority” by which he meant a select group of leaders who withdraw from the corrupting influences, commune with God, become spiritually regenerated and then return to inspire the masses.

The above concepts of the cyclical nature of social change may be called theories of cultural cycles. They are as a matter of fact the result of philosophical rather than scientific studies. The authors of these concepts begin with presumptions which they try to substantiate by marshalling a mass of data from history.

They are philosophical doctrines, spun from the whole cloth, however heavily documented and illustrated by distorted historical evidences. Barnes, while appraising Toynbee’s work, wrote, “It is not objective or even interpretative history. It is theology, employing selected facts of history to illustrate the will of God as the medieval bestiaries utilized biological fantasies to achieve the same results…. Toynbee s vast materials throw far more light upon the processes of Toynbee’s mind than upon the actual process of history….. He writes history as he thinks it should be to further the cause of salvation, rather than as it has really been.”

Linear Theory:

Some thinkers subscribe to the linear theory of social change. According to them, society gradually moves to an even higher state of civilization and that it advances in a linear fashion and in the direction of improvement. Auguste Comte postulated three stages of social change: the Theological, the Metaphysical and the Positive.

Man has passed through the first two stages, even though in some aspects of life they still prevail, and is gradually reaching the Positive stage. In the first stage man believed that supernatural powers controlled and designed the world. He advanced gradually from belief in fetishes and deities to monotheism.

This stage gave way to the Metaphysical stage, during which man tries to explain phenomena by resorting to abstractions. On the positive stage man considers the search for ultimate causes hopeless and seeks the explanatory facts that can be empirically observed. This implies progress which according to Comte will be assured if man adopts a positive attitude in the understanding of natural and social phenomena.

Herbert Spencer, who likened society to an organism, maintained that human society has been gradually progressing towards a better state. In its primitive state, the state of militarism, society was characterized by warring groups, by a merciless struggle for existence. From militarism society moved towards a state of industrialism. Society in the stage of industrialism is marked by greater differentiation and integration of its parts. The establishment of an integrated system makes it possible for the different groups—social, economic and racial, to live in peace.

Some Russian sociologists also subscribed to the linear theory of social change. Nikolai K. Mikhailovsky opined that human society passes through three stages; (1) the objective anthropocentric, (2) the eccentric, and (3) the subjective anthropocentric. In the first stage, man considers himself the centre of the universe and is preoccupied with mystic beliefs in the supernatural. In the second stage, man is given over to abstractions; the abstract is more “real” to him than the actual. In the third stage, man comes to rely upon empirical knowledge by means of which he exercises more and more control over nature for his own benefit. Solo-view conceived of the three stages as the tribal, the national governmental, and the period of universal brotherhood.

Pritirim Sorokin in his concept of variable recurrence has attempted to include both cyclical and linear change. In his view culture may proceed in a given direction for a time and thus appear to conform to a linear formula. But eventually, as a result of forces that are internal within the culture itself, there will be a shift of direction and a new period of development will be ushered in. Perhaps the new trend is also linear, perhaps it is oscillating, perhaps it conforms to some particular type of curve. At any rate, it also reaches limits and still another trend takes its place.

The description given by Sorokin makes room for almost any possibility, deterioration, progress or cyclical change and, therefore, sociologists find little quarrel with his description. But at any rate, Sorokin’s variable occurrence is an admission that the present state of sociological knowledge does not warrant the construction of theories regarding the long-run trend or character of social change.

Whether contemporary civilization is headed for the scrap-heap via internal disintegration or atomic warfare, or is destined to be replaced by some stabler and idealistic system of social relationships cannot be predicted on other than grounds of faith. The factual evidence which is available to us can only lead us to remark that whatever direction social change takes in future, that direction will be determined by man himself.

Demographic Theory

Sociologists have long looked at population issues as central to understanding human interactions. Understanding population growth gives us some insight on how many schools, homes, hospitals and even prisons we need to build, as well as other economic factors that impact societies. Below we will look at four theories about population that inform sociological thought: Malthusian, zero population growth, cornucopian, and demographic transition theories.

Malthusian Theory

Thomas Malthus (1766–1834) was an English clergyman who made dire predictions about earth’s ability to sustain its growing population. According to Malthusian theory, three factors would control human population that exceeded the earth’s carrying capacity, or how many people can live in a given area considering the amount of available resources. Malthus identified these factors as war, famine, and disease (Malthus 1798). He termed them “positive checks” because they increase mortality rates, thus keeping the population in check. They are countered by “preventive checks,” which also control the population but by reducing fertility rates; preventive checks include birth control and celibacy. Thinking practically, Malthus saw that people could produce only so much food in a given year, yet the population was increasing at an exponential rate. Eventually, he thought people would run out of food and begin to starve. They would go to war over increasingly scarce resources and reduce the population to a manageable level, and then the cycle would begin anew.

Zero Population Growth

A neo-Malthusian researcher named Paul Ehrlich brought Malthus’s predictions into the twentieth century. However, according to Ehrlich, it is the environment, not specifically the food supply, that will play a crucial role in the continued health of planet’s population (Ehrlich 1968). Ehrlich’s ideas suggest that the human population is moving rapidly toward complete environmental collapse, as privileged people use up or pollute a number of environmental resources such as water and air. He advocated for a goal of zero population growth (ZPG), in which the number of people entering a population through birth or immigration is equal to the number of people leaving it via death or emigration. While support for this concept is mixed, it is still considered a possible solution to global overpopulation.

Cornucopian Theory

Of course, some theories are less focused on the pessimistic hypothesis that the world’s population will meet a detrimental challenge to sustaining itself. Cornucopian theory scoffs at the idea of humans wiping themselves out; it asserts that human ingenuity can resolve any environmental or social issues that develop. As an example, it points to the issue of food supply. If we need more food, the theory contends, agricultural scientists will figure out how to grow it, as they have already been doing for centuries. (A “cornucopia” is a horn-shaped container overflowing with sources of nourishment; it traditionally symbolizes abundance.) After all, in this perspective, human ingenuity has been up to the task for thousands of years and there is no reason for that pattern not to continue (Simon 1981).

Demographic Transition Theory

Whether you believe that we are headed for environmental disaster and the end of human existence as we know it, or you think people will always adapt to changing circumstances, we can see clear patterns in population growth. Societies develop along a predictable continuum as they evolve from unindustrialized to postindustrial. Demographic transition theory (Caldwell and Caldwell 2006) suggests that future population growth will develop along a predictable four-stage (sometimes five-stage) model.

In Stage 1, birth, death, and infant mortality rates are all high, while life expectancy is short. An example of this stage is the 1800s in the United States. As countries begin to industrialize, they enter Stage 2, where birthrates are higher while infant mortality and the death rates drop. Life expectancy also increases. Afghanistan is currently in this stage. Stage 3 occurs once a society is thoroughly industrialized; birthrates decline, while life expectancy continues to increase. Death rates continue to decrease. Mexico’s population is at this stage. In the final phase, Stage 4, we see the postindustrial era of a society. Birth and death rates are low, people are healthier and live longer, and society enters a phase of population stability. Overall population may even decline. For example, Sweden is considered to be in Stage 4. Some scholars have added Stage 5, suggesting another stage when fertility either remains below replacement levels, or begins to rise slowly again.

 

Figure 1. This shows how the changes in birth and death rates affect total population during the demographic transition stages.

The United Nations Population Fund (2008) categorizes nations as high fertility, intermediate fertility, or low fertility. The United Nations (UN) anticipates the population growth will triple between 2011 and 2100 in high-fertility countries, which are currently concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa.

 

Figure 2. Projected Population in Africa: This graph shows the population growth of countries located on the African continent, many of which have high fertility rates. (Graph courtesy of USAID)

For countries with intermediate fertility rates (the United States, India, and Mexico all fall into this category), growth is expected to be about 26 percent.

 

Figure 3. Projected Population in the United States: The United States has an intermediate fertility rate, and therefore, a comparatively moderate projected population growth. (Graph courtesy of USAID)

And low-fertility countries like China, Australia, and most of Europe will actually see population declines of approximately 20 percent.

 

Figure 4. Projected Population in Europe: This chart shows the projected population growth of Europe for the remainder of this century. (Graph courtesy of USAID)

Conflict Theory

Conflict theory is a general term covering a number of sociological approaches, which appose functionalism and which share the idea that the basic feature of all societies was the struggle between different groups for access to limited resources.

Conflict theories assume that all societies have structural power divisions and resource inequalities that lead to groups having conflicting interests (Wells, 1979).

For example, Marxism emphasizes class conflict over economic resources, but Weber suggests that conflict and inequality can be caused by power and status independently of class structures.

Evolution Of Conflict Theory

Large-scale civil unrest and large demographic dislocations, extreme poverty, and a wide gap between the interests and wealth of workers and owners led to the development of Marxist conflict theory, which emphasizes the omnipresence of the divides of social class.

Later, conflict theory manifested in World Wars and Civil Rights movements, empowerment movements, and rebuttals of colonial rule (Bartos and Wehr, 2002).

Although people have been spreading conflict from a folk knowledge context for millennia, the philosophy underlying conflict theory — and intentional thinking around how people understand conflict and how they can resolve it in constructive ways — stems from the thinking of Karl Marx, Max Weber, and George Simmel.

However, sociologists such as Bartos and Wehr (2002) propose the definition that conflict is any situation where actors use conflict action against each other in order to attain incompatible goals or to express their hostility.

When two or more individuals pursue incompatible interests, they are in a relationship of conflict. For example, if the workers in a factory wish to work as little as possible and be paid as much as possible, and the owners want the workers to work as much as possible with as little pay as possible, then the workers and owners have incompatible interests (Bartos and Wehr, 2002).

Conflict can also manifest when groups do not necessarily have incompatible goals but feel hostility toward each other.

Hostility arises out of non-rational decision-making, which is impulsive and often at odds with the actions rational analysis (such as prospect or utility theory) may suggest.

Because of this contradiction, conflict behavior heavily influenced by hostility can be damaging to the actor’s interest in the long term (Bartos and Wehr, 2002).

Finally, “conflict behavior” covers many types of behavior. Conflict behavior can consist of rational actions (actions that consider and accurately judge all possible outcomes) and the expression of hostility, as well as behavior that is either coercive (such as causing great physical harm to an opponent) or cooperative (Bartos and Wehr, 2002).

Understanding Conflict Theory

Causes Of Conflict

Generally, sociologists agree that conflict occurs due to groups having incompatible goals. However, these incompatible goals generally arise from several factors: including contested resources, incompatible roles, and incompatible values.

Examples Of Conflict

The Cuban Missile Crisis

During the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, the United States and the Soviet Union became close to nuclear war (Downing, 1992). The Soviet leader Kruschev installed medium-range missiles in Cuba.

The president of the United States had to negotiate the risks of reacting too strongly (nuclear war) with the drawbacks of responding weakly (increasing the influence of the Soviet Union).

That is to say, the United States and the Soviet Union had deeply conflicting interests: the Soviet Union wanted to increase its missile supremacy, and the United States wanted to curtail it (Bartos and Wehr, 2002).

Conflict and Individualism

Although some societies (such as Japan) can preserve some features of small groups, most wealthy, industrialized Western societies tend to encourage individualism, which encourages members of a society to formulate and develop their own values rather than accepting those of the larger groups (Bartos and Wehr, 2002).

Individual personality differences — such as extraversion, aggression, talkative, and problem-solving styles — may lead to the development of incompatible values.

One’s alignment with individualism or collectivism can also have a great impact on styles of decision-making in conflicts.

According to LeFebvre and Franke (2013), for example, participants with higher levels of individualism tended to favor rational approaches to decision-making, while those with higher levels of collectivism tended to value staying loyal to the interests of their ingroups.

A Conflict Theory of Sexual Stratification

Collins (1971) attempts to explain employment discrimination against women as the result of a sexual stratification system constructed from the perspectives of Freud and Weber.

In short, Weber argued that conflict emerges over a struggle for as much dominance over other groups as resources permit.

In the early 1970s, women tended to comprise a low number of professional and manual labor positions relative to men.

For example, in 1971, 18% of college professors were female, and 3.3% of lawyers and judges were. Historically, explanations for this imbalance involved a perceived lack of training and a low commitment to professional work in favor of child rearing (Collins, 1971).

However, as Collins demonstrates, neither of these is necessarily true.

Rather, Collins suggests that women belong to a lower class in a sexual stratification system. This is evidenced by how women in the 1970s who took on managerial roles tended to do so mostly in professions dominated by women (such as nursing).

Collins then goes on to theorize that men’s large size and high sexual and aggressive drives have led to the historical subjugation of women by men.

In this system, according to Collins (1971), women can be acquired as sexual property and thus subjugated to the role of “menial servants” (Levi-Strauss, 1949).

Information Technology & Social Change

Introduction

No one can step into the same river twice,because everything in the world is in perpetual motion which helps the universe to be made up.Our society is an organic and complex synthetic,facing inevitable change and it is influenced by culture,politics,economics,technologies and other aspects with time.Social change has been defined in different theoretical orientations and concisely can be viewed as the changes in the social mechanisms,which can be embodied as the alteration of cultural symbols,rules of conduct,social organizations or value systems(Giddens, 2013, p. 111).Two of the most important aspects of social changes are specified to the change of social structure and the change of social relationship.Also,it cannot be denied that technology has played a significant role in social change.Social revolutions are tied together with technology,rather than technological tools,the original cause is that technology has changed the way people work and think.

How technology changes societies

The social system is an open system that exchanges material,energy and information with the outside world all the time. Meanwhile,it adjusts its original institutions to adapt to the new environment,and then social changes have formed. In the primitive society,the low-level productivity was just to meet the need for survival of human beings. During that time ,strictly,people did not have the concept of technology(Giddens, 2013, p. 124). The development of technology has promoted social change.

It was the germination of science and technology that had made mankind step into the pre-modern society:people created stone tools, discovered fires,created words,and thus promoted social change. According to Harris(1978, cited in Giddens, 2013, p. 129), a famous anthropologist,pre-modern society can be divided into four main types:hunting and gathering societies,agrarian societies,pastoral societies and traditional societies or civilization. The technological inventions of the Stone Age made hunting and fishing possible for human beings;and the creation of the plow brought the second social revolution and helped people have more stable food sources,at that time agricultural society was born.

Artificial fires made people bid farewell to the darkness and expanded the capacity of time and space;historical record and dissemination of knowledge derived from the invitation of writing;the creation of the compass promoted the development of the maritime industry and promoted the process of trade. The emergence of machines based on inanimate power resources (such as steam and electricity) ushered in industrial society. Mechanized production replaced traditional manual manufacturing and freed labor force,subverting the way society was organized,leading the collapse of traditional and feudal societies and the emergence of capitalism(Giddens, 2013, pp. 119-123).

Marked by the invention of microchips,modern technologies,including internet computer nuclear technology and new energy technology,have greatly improved the level of world productivity and completely subverted the mode of human production and the way of interaction between people,and strengthened the intelligent industry which speeded up the process of social change and brought globalization(Giddens, 2013, p. 127).In primitive society, people paid much attention to the division of labor and cooperation, and they were far away from war. There was almost no inequality in power and wealth.

When it came to horticultural and pastoral societies, people relied on farming and raising livestock. Governed by the chiefs or kings,the population of society began to grow and social stratification appeared. In non-industrial civilized society, word and printing were used widely,the development of art and science becoming unprecedented prosperity. Ruled by a king or an emperor,the balance of wealth and power suffering a huge tilt(Raiu, 2011, p. 393).

Generally,in the history of mankind, technological innovation has played a decisive role in social change. If these tools had never been invented,people might have lived on hunting and gathering. Technology has not only become an internal independent factor in the modern productivity system, but also become a decisive factor and become the driving force behind the development of modern productive forces. The development of science and technology,through the transformation of productivity as an intermediary,and through the profound impact on the socio-economic structure, ultimately led to changes in the entire society.

The effects of technology on social change

The development of technology helped people put down the plow, left the farmland, and stepped into the industrial society. Originated in Europe,modern technology lead the emergence of industrialization,without which,people might continue to rely on inefficient traditional handicrafts(Tomory, 2016, p. 160). As Economic historian David(2003, cited in Giddens, 2013, p. 119) suggests, modern technology not only helps people to make more products,but also creates objects that were never produced by hand in any way. Industrialization broke up the feudal society and gave birth to a new economic operating model called capitalism, of which power and wealth were monopolized by capitalists. In modern society,the impact of technology on social change is becoming more and more direct and significant. Represented by computers,the third technological revolution has completely changed all aspects of people’s lives as well as determining the political and military economy of a country,having accelerated the recovery and development after the Second World War.

However,the acceptance of industrialization and the gap in technology have made great differences in the development of different countries. For example,the technology varies greatly across European countries and the differences are in expansion,which has brought about a significant gap in labor productivity(Filippetti & Peyrache, 2015, p. 533).

Over the long process of human history, technology is one of the cores of social change, but as we can witness ,the inequality of wealth,power and resources brought by the development of technology can never be ignored.

Technology and globalization

There are many ways to connect with the external world,whether at home or at work in a society with highly developed telecommunications infrastructure,such as telephone,digital television,satellite television,email and Internet. Including the popularity of information technology,these technologies promote the compression of time and space,which has helped worldwide instant messaging become a reality(Giddens, 2013, p. 127). The way people communicate has changed,if they want to chat with their families or friends across the Atlantic what they have to do is just turning on their smartphone.

Aqueil(2014)points out that the emergence of globalization is the result of the global economy which benefits from trade and technology. The booming development of information and communication technologies has promoted globalization. However for less-developed countries, the unequal distribution of economies and sources has been aggravated by the information gap.

Technological Pessimism

From the perspective of techno-pessimists,the development of technology has triggered the disappearance of species,the lack of resources,the explosion of population,the nuclear terrorism,and the polarization of the rich and the poor ,threatening the survival of mankind.

Jeremy(1996) redefined a second law of thermodynamics from a philosophical perspective and argued that the process of human civilization is actually a way to continuous decline. The enormous energy consumption of modern industrial society has brought great confusion to the world. The faster the social development is, the more the energy is consumed,which has increased the degree of environmental chaos, so ‘the world is always falling'(Rifkin, 1996, p. 18).Rifkin(2010) also points out that for the Millennial Generation, the convenience of internet helped them communicate in an international social networking ,but their dependence on technological connectivity might lead to the collapse of the expressive skills for the young(Rifkin, 2010, p. 30).

Dennis(2004)makes a similar point:If the consumption of population,food,industrial pollution and resource will increase as the current trend, population grows exponentially, which leads to the collapse of the whole society(Dennis, 2004, p. 367).

The development of technology is providing convenience to people,but at the same time,it is increasing the consumption of resources, making people more dependent on technology.

Technology affects the changes of social relationship and structure

The development of technology has brought about great changes, not only the transformation of the relationship between human beings and nature, but also changing the way people interact with each other. Represented by computers and the Internet,modern technology has established a direct channel which helps people to communicate and feedback their information.

American computer scientist Paul(2018)uses the conception of ‘common symbiosis’of biology to describe a new relationship between human beings and technology. He emphasizes that the computer is an important ‘community partner’ in human society,in which the relationship between people and machines becomes an indispensable condition in social life. Furthermore,human beings and networks form a new relationship ‘group symbiosis’ in this social ecosystem.In the future,with the development of computer technology, people can experience social life with computers that can simulate human emotions and activities(Paul, 2018, p. 45).

This means computers and networks will become a unique species in human society that can establish symbiotic relationships with people and influence the social relationships of people in reality,which is amazing but also scary:the machine has human emotions of human beings,but the machine is always just a machine.

Phillip and Karim Gherab(2012) point out that since the middle of the 20th century, the development of the modern scientific and technological revolution has made the integration of science, technology and production an irreversible trend(Phillip & Karim, 2012, p. 260).

In this sense, technology has became an independent element of the modern productive system.On the basis of transforming productivity, technology has changed the social division of labor and further changed the industrial structure,occupational structure and social stratum structure of the society, thus causing changes in the entire social structure.

Conclusion

From individuals to countries, the available resources are enriched,and communicative mode has become more and more diversified,technology having been the engine to drive the change of society including the revolution from primitive society to information society,the appearance of industrialization capitalism and globalization. The impact on society from technology is largely determined by economic factors,but it also extends beyond the economic field. Technology affects politics and culture and itself is affected by both also. Although modern society is only a small part of human history, it has undergone rapid and major changes due to the promotion of technology.The development of technology has brought about the changes in social structure and social relations.But technology has also brought excessive consumption of energy, and even environmental problems,and it also increased inequality between developed countries and undeveloped countries.

Sanskritisation

Sanskritization: An Introduction

• M N Srinivas wrote: “Sanskritization is the process by which lower castes, tribes, or other groups change their customs, rituals, ideology, and way of life towards those of higher castes“. Examples include wearing sacred threads, refusing to use meat and alcohol, observing endogamy, and forbidding widows from remarrying.
   
• In his study of Coorg of Mysore, M.N. Srinivas found that the lower castes sought to rise in the caste hierarchy by adopting some Brahmin cultural ideals. As a result, they left behind some of the ideals considered impure by the Brahmins. To describe this movement process, Srinivas used the term “Brahminization”. He later called it “Sanskritization” in the broader sense.
   
• In some societies, people of lower castes followed not only Brahmin customs but also those of the locally dominant caste, such as the Kshatriya and Vaishya raising their status. Srinivas pointed out that in caste structures with fixed and genetic placements/ranks, Sanskritization became a process that enabled movement in caste positions/roles of particular castes. 
   
• The process of Sanskritization is not limited to castes in Hindu society, but can also be found in tribal societies. It is therefore a lingering phenomenon that is not only confined to caste hierarchies/religious structures but also encompasses broader social and cultural processes that are integrated and not confined to the Hindu caste system. 
   
• Sanskritization involves both cultural accumulation and cultural decline. The “lower” caste abandons rituals, customs, traditions, and values. Therefore, there is cultural poverty. On the other hand, there is also an accumulation of culture that incorporates new values, traditions, and customs of the upper castes.
   
• The concept of Sanskritization also led to non-Sanskritization. In modern times, some of the upper castes may mimic the behavioral patterns of the “lower” castes, for example, Brahmins began eating meat and alcohol. This process is called de-Sanskritization.

Major Issues related to Sanskritization:

• The mere fact that it takes caste decades to raise its status indicates the slowness of the process, and slowness is the opposite sign.
   
• The most important factor impeding this process is the antipathy of other castes to the caste that seeks to elevate itself. Political and economic pressures often come. Sometimes even physical violence is used to prevent the lower castes from adopting the customs and rituals of the upper castes.
   
• Another factor that hinders the process of Sanskritization is Westernization. Westernization can be characterized as a transition from the sacred to the mundane.
   
• Both Sanskritization and Westernization processes occur simultaneously, creating a contradictory or even confusing situation. Most castes face the dilemma of making a choice.
   
• On the other hand, the lower castes adopt the traditional values ​​and customs of the upper castes and try to elevate their status and the upper castes have abandoned some of these practices. Increased industrialization, expanded communication, new occupations, and expanded education are likely to make westernization a more dominant process.

Does it is responsible for Social Mobility?

• M N Srinivas also warned that the process itself does not necessarily enhance the social status of such castes.
   
• Other factors such as economic well-being, political power, education, and literary/historical evidence of belonging to/descending to a particular caste line are also important in aspirations for higher social status. did. 
   
• Most importantly for Dalits, Sanskritization did not guarantee a higher social status and did not lead to an improvement in their daily lives. This indicates that the caste system remained particularly exclusive to Dalits and efforts to improve their social status were rejected and thwarted by higher castes.

Major Issues:

1. Strengthen the hierarchy: Even if Sanskritization enabled social mobility through the elevation of the caste hierarchy to a relatively high status, it would change the rank/position of the community within the caste hierarchy, causing gradual inequalities and practices on behalf of the caste.  It only reinforces and does not denounce the caste by offering strong criticism of the system as a whole.

2. Resists the fight against caste: To understand caste relations through Sanskritization alone is to ignore the role of anti-caste struggles that did not follow the cultural ritual path of Sanskritization. These anti-caste struggles aim not to imitate or conform to the “superior” socio-cultural values ​​of higher castes, i.e. values ​​and practices that are casteist, discriminatory and exploitative. There was
Instead, these anti-caste struggles seek to destroy the very caste structure and establish a caste-free and caste-free society.

Westernisation

Westernization

Westernization is a process whereby societies come under or adopt Western culture in areas such as industry, technology, law, politics, economics, lifestyle, diet, clothing, language, alphabet, religion, philosophy, and values. Westernization has been an accelerating influence across the world in the last few centuries, with some thinkers assuming Westernization to be the equivalent of modernization, a way of thought that is often debated. The overall process of Westernization is often two-sided in that Western influences and interests themselves are joined with parts of the affected society, at minimum, to change towards a more Westernized society, in the hope of attaining a Western life or some aspects of it, while Western societies are themselves affected by this process and interaction with non-Western groups.

The concept was also constructed by M.N. Srinivas to describe the process of social and cultural mobility in the traditional social structure of India. It has also emerged, in Srinivas’ study of the Coorgs of south India. The author has defined westernisation as “the change brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule, the term subsuming changes occur-ring at different levels in technology, institutions, ideology and values”. M.N. Srinivas refer Westernisation to ‘the changes brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule and the term subsumes changes occurring at different levels – technology, institutions, ideology, values.’

He traces westernisation from the period of British Raj. Surely, the colonial rule brought with it exploitation and suppression of the masses of people both at the rural and urban levels. At the same time, it also brought certain radical changes in Indian society and culture. The land was surveyed, revenue was settled, a new bureaucracy emerged, and army, police and law courts were established. The British rule also developed communications, railways, post and telegraph and also started schools and colleges.

Yet another force released by the British rule was the working of Christian missionary. The Christian missionaries worked in the different parts of the country, particularly in those which were backward and inhabited by tribals and untouchables. This brought the weaker sections closer to westernisation.

In contemporary India, when we talk about westernisation, a tremendous change has come in rural India. The impact of five-year plans has brought the village people in the wider network of commu-nication and modernisation. The democratic institutions such as Panchayati Raj and massive spread of education have brought the villagers to come closer to westernization.

Impact of Westernization on Indian Society:

The encounter between the Indian tradition and western culture was of immense sociological significance. The western tradition had a meaningful impact upon the cultural, political and social systems of India to such an enormous extent that it has been told that such a contact had initiated a new era of change in the Indian cultural tradition. The mode of the western cultural impact on the Indian tradition had distinctive features. Historically, various western traditions came to India with differing political and cultural orientations and exerted variegated influences upon Indian society and culture. The following are some of the areas in which the western impact was visibly noticed.

1. Growth of a Universalistic Legal System:

The process of westernization brought in its wake new legal norms which contributed to the growth of a universalistic positive form of law in India. Formerly the legal system was founded on the principles of hierarchy and holism. Accordingly justice was meted out on the basis of the status of various castes and classes in the local hierarchy. Thus, following the prescription of Manu, a Brahmin slandering a Kshatriya had to pay a fine of fifty Panas, but for slandering a Vaishya or Shudra he had to pay twenty five and twelve panas respectively. If the lower castes slandered the high castes, the penalties were more severe. The principle of hierarchy was strictly followed in matters of dispensing justice.

Our traditional legal system continued to be group-oriented and non-equalitarian. With the establishment of the British power in India, there came a new turning point in the legal system of the country. Various forms of legal innovation based on the principles of universalism, rationalism and individualism were introduced and thereby to making the new judicial system individual oriented and universalistic. It enacted legislations introducing social reforms in many sensitive areas such as marriage customs the age of marriage, the age of consent for marriage. It established the principle of equality and generated a consciousness of positive rights among the down-troden castes.

2. Impact of Westernization on Education:

Contemporary education is of western origin. Traditionally, the content of education was metaphysical. It was confined to the upper classes or the twice born castes. Its structure was hereditary and closed. The roles of both the teachers and the taught were qualitative-ascriptive. But Modern education has a fundamentally different orientation and organization. Its content is liberal and it preaches scientific world-view. Freedom equality, humanism and denial of faith in dogmatism are the major themes of modern education. Its professional structure is not ascriptive. It can be achieved by merit by anyone in the society.

3. Impact on the Communication network:

The media of communication have been introduced in India through the western contact. Printed newspapers came into existence only after India’s contact with the West. The Britishers introduced the telegraph, railways and modern postal system in India. Similar improvement has also been made in the other media of communication and transport. The expansion in transport by the railways, roadways, airways and waterways has contributed to the intensification in the volume of interaction and contact between one region with another. The concept of purity and pollution has been given discount since the people of all castes are travelling in the same railway coach or bus.

4. Growth of Nationalism:

Both Nationalism and democracy in the contemporary form are the gifts of westernization. Nationalism implies consciousness of one’s nationhood. Its sociological manifestation is the idea of nation-state. Democracy is a special form of political organization and system of values on which nation-state can be founded. The feeling of nationality and respect for democratic norms is a consequence of westernization.

It was the fervent patriotic zeal of the western people that made our leaders think of developing India as a united country. Most of the nationalist leaders of the freedom struggle in India got inspiration from western literature and thought. Indian nationalism, however, was not modelled completely on the western pattern.

5. Impact on Food habits and Mode of eating: 

Westernization has reached the level of food habits and way of eating. Traditionally, Indians ate their meals sitting on the floor. Food was served either on the leaves or onbrass, bronze or silver plates. Among the upper castes, and especially among Brahmin, eating was a religious act. The food had to be cooled while the women in charge of cooking and serving it must be in a ritually purer state. Food was being served to children and adults in order of seniority. At the end of the meal, the dining leaves became impure and were thrown out and the places where the leaves rested were purified with a solution of cowdung.

But now the westernized groups increasingly prefer to eat at tables with stainless steel utensils, spoons etc. thus the new mode of eating has contributed to an increase in secularization as the table is not likely to be purified with cowdung after meals and the ritual acts traditionally performed before and after meals and almost dropped. Changing food habits has brought people nearer to modern food technologies. The use of ghee has increasingly been replaced by vegetable oil both in rural and urban areas. Tea shops are now common in most road side villages and persons of all castes take tea in china cups, glasses or earthen-cups, even if tea might be drawn by a lower caste person. Eating meat and eggs by higher caste members is on the increase. Poultry farms which were previously considered polluting are opened in large numbers.

6. Impact on the Dress Pattern:

Under the influence of westernization even people living in villages have opted for factory-made clothes like nylon, Terylene, terycot etc. in place of home-spun clothes, readymade garments have become popular. The mode of dress has also under gone a drastic change. The old style of shirt has been replaced by the modern style shirts. It marked a gradual weakening of ideas of ritual purity. The western clothes became more popular even Brahmins sat at dinner with their shirts on.

7. Change in Language:

Many terms from the English language have entered the dialects of the rural folk. The expansion of civil administration popularized the terms like court, collector, judge, barristers etc. similarly the expansion of transport facilities has rendered the terms like rail, station, signals etc. matters in daily usage. Politicization of villages since Independence has introduced villages to terms like party, socialism, communism, ministry etc. and similarly, spread of medical facilities now makes expressions like injections, mixture, penicillin etc also household words.

8. Weakening of Traditional Culture:

Modern education and increased utilitarian and rational values of the Indian elite led them to make sharp criticisms of their own culture. They began casting aspersion on the evils of our traditional culture which used to make submissive. The loathing of and longing for a new culture, the raising aspirations of population for better future made them sort out what was desirable and vice versa. Indians today are more individualistic, free thinking and lead relatively a more free life. Modernization of the tradition is taking place in India today under the impact of the process of westernization.

9. Impact on Marriage:

Westernization has also brought about noticeable changes in matrimonial relationship. Marriage today is no longer seen as a relationship between two families rather it has transformed to the relationship of two individuals i.e. husband and wife. Husband and wife do not treat each other as superior or inferior but as friends and companions. Love and marriage has sidelined religion. Even marriage ceremony itself has changed.

10. Impact on Family:

Western culture preaches the individualistic ideology of family which is diametrically opposite to the collective ethos on which the joint family system is founded, imbibing the individualistic philosophy people give importance to the individual over the group there by they encourage self-men. This has cut the joint family from its very root for which it has started crippling down. Members in a family today prefer freedom to enjoy marital life. Today’s brides do not like to remain under the control of laws. New democratic conventions find their place in household affairs too.

11. Impact on the Status of Women:

A strong influence of the west is tangible on the status of women today. The medieval period in Indian history is witness to the status of women sinking to the nadir and if we find today women getting their due in almost all the fields, a major part of the credit goes to westernization. Education on the one hand generated and encouraged liberal ideas among men while on the other hand it prepared women to strive for natural status of equality.

12. Impact on Religion:

Impact of science and western education did bring about a significant change in our perception of religion. Uncritical acceptance of religious ideas is being replaced by logical interpretation and acceptance. The social value of religion has gone down. From a collective activity religion has become an individualistic activity. The activity pace of religion is gradually decreasing. There was a time when social, economic, political scenes were all dominated by religion but now it is evolving more or less as an independent institution.

13. Impact on Customs:

Indian masses which were a bit reluctant initially in accepting the ways of the west are now jumping to their ways. From clothes to houses we live in, all bear the stamp of western style and it has become a status symbol. Cosmetic, decoration of pieces, crockery and even the methods of greetings have all become westernized. In fact, in every activity of life, the impact of the west is easily seen as far as customs are concerned.

14. Impact on Art and Literature:

The literally sub-culture of India was too influenced by the English literary tradition. ‘Romanticism’ and ‘Psychiatrism’ of the west can be found in almost every kind of literary expression of today. Experimentalism, Hedonism and Romanticism have found place in Indian poetry. Equality, environment, freedom, social movement and other related topics have also got place in Indian art and literature. Modern art is definitely a by-product of westernization which could not be easily adopted because of its radically different concepts.

15. Eradication of Social Evils:

Social evils which had plagued the society and in a way were responsible for making Indian society so much vulnerable to foreign annexation, could only be given a determined fight after the process of westernization took its root. No doubt, a few social workers had raised their fingers against these social evils before but it was the process of westernization which prepared a broad base through which efforts against these evils could bear fruit.

The practice of widow burning, infanticides, stealing of children for slavery, child marriage, ban on widow marriage, untouchability are some of those social evils which are still being fought. Science and technology from the west have done some demystifying effect on these types of practices.

Features of Westernization:

1. The process of westernization subsumes changes occurring at different levels of technology, institutions, ideology and values. Broadly, it includes all changes that any non-western country like India or any other colonial country, undergoes as a result of prolonged contact with a western culture.

2. The most important area of change was the value preferences of the non-western societies:

A most important value which in turn subsumes several other values, is what may broadly characterized as humanitarianism which means active concern for the welfare of all human beings irrespective of social inequalities based on caste, economic position, religion, age or sex. Equalitarianism and secularization also form part of the value of humanitarianism. Humanitarianism refers to many of the reforms introduced by the British in the first half of the 19th century such as civil, penal and procedural laws which put an end to certain inequalities that were part of the Hindu and the Islamic jurisprudence.

The principle of equality found expression in the abolition of slavery, in the opening of new schools and colleges- which were, in theory at least, opened to all irrespective of religion, race and caste. The new economic opportunities were also open to all, although in practice caste and other elite groups who traditionally lived in the big towns, enjoyed considerable advantages over others.

3. The introduction of reforms and new laws by the British led to several changes in the Indian customs which were earlier enforced as part of one’s religious duty:

A religious custom had to satisfy the test of reason and humanitarianism if it was to be allowed to survive. As the British rule gained roots in India, the values of rationality and humanitarianism also became firmly entrenched in the caste-ridden society. The formal system of education introduced by the British played an effective role in perpetuating these values.

4. Westernization is an all inclusive term:

It covers a wide range of changes from western technology at one end to the experimental method of modern science and modern historiography at the other. In the field of technology it has revolutionized the process of mass communication, transportation, industrialization and improved health care facilities and has made available new comfortable gadgets for better living conditions. These changes are intimately linked with the life of the common man and have proved consequential.

5. The process of Westernization in India was uneven:

Only a tiny fraction of Indian population came into direct, face to face contact with the British. And those who came in contact with the British officers did not always become a force for change. Indian servants of the British, for instance, probably wielded some influence among their kin groups and local caste groups but not among others. They often came from the low castes as well. Their westernization was of a superficial kind as the upper castes made fun of them.

6. The process of westernization has neatly intensified in many ways since 1947:

The first and most critical step in westernization was the establishment of Pax Britanica and the revolutions in communications that followed. Extension of the administrative and trading frontiers broke the centuries old isolation of the different groups inhabiting the remote parts of the country. Similarly the means of transportation and communication opened up avenues for new contacts.

Thus, development of communications and the removal of internal custom barriers integrated the economics of various regions in the country. In a word the political and administrative integration of India as well as the development of communication and the beginning of industrialization and agricultural development, increased spatial and social mobility of both the elite and the rural poor which laid the foundation of subsequent nationwide westernization.

7. The form and pace of Westernization of India varied from region to region and from one section of population to another:

For instance, one group of people became westernized in their dress, diet, manners, speech, sports and in the gadgets they used while another absorbed western science, knowledge and literature, remaining free from external attributes of westernization. For example, Brahmins accepted the western style of dressing and appearance, sent their children to westernized schools used gadgets like the radio, car etc. but they did not accept the British diet, dancing, hunting, and the casual attitude of the British about population.

8. Another feature of Westernization is that it creates many inter contradictory forces which, instead of consolidating, contradict each other:

In the political and cultural fields, westernization has given birth not only to nationalism but also revivalism, communalism, casteism, linguism, regionalism etc.

Modernisation

MEANING

The term modernization “does not denote any philosophy or movement, but it only symbolizes a process of change. In fact, “Modernization” is understood as a process which indicates the adoption of the modern ways of life and values”. The term was being used previously to refer only “to change in economy and its related effect on social values and practices”. It was also described as a process that changed society, from primarily agricultural to a primarily industrial economy. As a result of the change in the economy, the society itself underwent changes in values, beliefs and norms. But, today the term is given a broader meaning.

Today, the term, ‘Modernization’ is understood as an attempt, on the part of the people, particularly those who are custom-bound, to adapt themselves to the present time, conditions, styles, and ways in general. It indicates a change in people’s food habits, dress habits, speaking styles, tastes, choices, preferences, ideas, values, recreational facilities and so on. It is also described as “social change involving the elements of science and technology”. The scientific and technological inventions have brought about remarkable changes in the whole system of social relationship and installed new ideologies in the place of traditional ones.

M.N. Srinivas, however, criticizes the concept of Modernization, according to him; it is a value-loaded term. He says that “Modernization is normally used in the sense that it is good. He, therefore, prefers to use the term ‘Westernization’ which characterizes the changes brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule”.

Yogendra Singh, on the other hand, defends the concept of modernization. According to him, it is broader than the two processes of Sanskritization and Westernization. It is, indeed a ‘cultural universal’ and not necessarily confined to any single society. Like science, modernity is not an exclusive possession of any one ethnic or cultural group. It belongs to humanity as a whole. This does not mean that everywhere it should reveal the same pattern. It need not always take place on the model of England, Germany, France or America. It can take place on the model of Russia, India, Japan, Australia, or any other country for that matter. What is essential to modernization is this – a commitment to “scientific world view” and a belief in the humanistic and philosophical viewpoint of science on contemporary problems.

DEFINITION

1. According to Daniel Lerner “Modernization is the current term for an old process of social change whereby less developed societies acquire the characteristics common to more developed societies”.
2. Smelser. Modernization refers to “a complex set of changes that take place almost in every part of society as it attempts to be industrialized. Modernization involves ongoing change in a society’s economy, politics, education, traditions, and religion”.
3. S.H. Alatas. “Modernization is a process by which modern scientific knowledge is introduced in the society with the ultimate purpose of achieving a better and a more satisfactory life in the broadest sense of the term as accepted by the society concerned”.
4. Rutow and Ward (1964) the basic process in Modernization is the application of modern science to human affairs.
5. Eisenstadt Modernization refers to both (a) structural aspects of social organization, and (b) socio-demographic aspects of societies.
6. Prof. Yogendra Singh says, “Modernization symbolizes a rational attitude towards issues and their evaluation but not from particularistic point of view”.

FEATURES/CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERNIZATION

1. Application of technology and mechanization. This means in other words that the people give up their old ways of living, old methods of agriculture and travelling. Previously, the majority of the people in India used to live in villages in old ways in Kuccha houses and they used to cultivate their lands through ploughs and travel by means of bullock-carts.

Now, this has been given up entirely as the people now live in well-built houses, cultivate their fields through tractors and use other modern methods of agriculture (chemical fertilizers or manure, good seeds, irrigation system and harvesting through machines).

Now the ordinary people prefer to travel by means of buses and trains but the more affluent section of the society i.e. the rich people prefer to travel by super-fast trains and aeroplanes. This means in other words that the people are using modern methods of technology and mechanization.

1. Industrialization. Previously the people used to spin cloths through spindles and live in traditional ways and use their old patterns of occupation and places of residence. When the industrialization of a country takes places, the people give up their traditional rural and agricultural economy. Its place is taken over by industrialization. New factories and mills continue to grow daily and use the latest techniques.

iii. Urbanization. When the industrialization of a country takes place, then the new centres of industries develop. Consequently, the people of villages particularly the labourers migrate in large number to these new centres in the cities with the hope that they will return to their villages after making enough money but well their livelihood in the villages and agriculture cannot bear so much burden.

Moreover, it is very inconvenient for them to come and go daily from the villages to the cities as there is much rush on buses and trains and travelling is very costly. So with the growing industrialization of the country, the people in large number continue to migrate from the villages to cities and settle permanently there. This in return causes many problems in the cities, housing, and sanitation, improving methods of communication and acquiring more and more lands for manifold purposes.

1. Rise in national and per-capital Income. The agricultural economy alone cannot increase the national wealth and per-capita income as it has to support the idle members of the society also. Therefore in order to raise the national and per capita income, the old economy based on agriculture has to be supplemented by industrial growth and its income because by exporting the industrial goods the country can make huge profits.
2. Increase in literacy. Another prominent feature of modernization is that all-out efforts are made by the Government and the society to wipe out illiteracy and strenuous efforts are made not only to send every child to school but the adults are also persuaded to learn three R’s (reading, ‘riting and ‘rithmetic).

This education does not remain limited only to arts, science and commerce but also spreads to higher medical education, research, technology and crafts. Thus the avenues of higher education are made available to every person in all fields. So everybody runs after attaining higher education.

1. Political participation. When the best possible opportunities are offered to every person to attain higher education, people become enlightened. Economic development and equal distribution of wealth enable everybody to share sometime from the pressing necessity of daily wants and devote it to political participation.

Every voter begins to read the newspaper and learn something about politics. The voter ultimately becomes enlightened and votes for that party which is likely to solve economic problems and take the country to further heights unattained so far.

Therefore the political participation is made possible in a democracy through political parties, interest groups, and various other organisations. They influence the government for the welfare of citizens and equal opportunities are made available in services to everybody irrespective of caste, colour, creed, religion, sex or such other considerations.

vii. Development of mass-media techniques. The modernization brings in its wake the development of mass-media techniques. These mass-media techniques include newspapers, broadcasting, postal facilities, movies, road, rail and air services, electricity, and T.V. Through all these facilities, the citizens become enlightened and well-informed and these, in turn, enable the citizens to serve the state in a better way.

viii. Social mobility. When the modernization of a country begins to take place, then the people go on migrating from the villages to cities in search of better amenities and jobs. The role of village Sarpanch becomes insignificant and is replaced in the cities by the role of the leaders of various political parties and the Unions. As the people become conscious, so they rally round that leader, who is likely to deliver the goods.

1. Cultivation of national identity. When the modernization of any country takes place, then the people begin to give up their narrow loyalties and parochial ‘Considerations of caste, colour, sex or creed. Their interests become identified with ‘he interests of the nation.

Modernization does not necessarily mean that the people may discard all their traditional values or cultural and political heritage. For example, the British are traditionally conservative but still, they have retained their old institutions like kingship and House of Lords. Though their powers hive been sufficiently curtailed, yet they have been made useful institutions which could serve the growing needs of the society. Therefore the British are considered as one of the most modern nations. Similar is the case with the Japanese, the French and the Germans. We, in India, are also doing the same. Without losing our cultural or political heritage, we are adopting the latest technology and modern scientific techniques. Thus, we are marching towards modernization at a great speed.

FACTORS OF MODERNIZATION

Modernization in India started mainly with Western contact, especially through the establishment of British rule. This contact brought about many far-reaching changes in the culture and social structure of Indian society. Not all these changes could be called modernizing. The basic direction of this contact was towards modernization, but in the process, a good number of traditional institutions got strengthened.

There was, however, one important feature of Indian modernization during the British period. The growth of this process was very much selective and partial. It never encompassed the micro-structures of Indian society such as family, caste, kin group and village community. British people intelligently followed the policy of “least interference”, especially at these micro-levels.

But at the macro-level, the components of modernization such as a universalistic legal system, expansion of Western form of education, urbanization and industrialization, the spread of new means of communication and transport and social reforms led the way in the transformation of Indian society.

Along with these, aspects of structural modernization such as rational bureaucratic systems of administration and judiciary, army and industrial bureaucracy, new classes of business elite and entrepreneurs came into being. There was the emergence of the political elite and nationalist leadership. These modernizing structures had a uniform character throughout the country.

After Independence, the modernization process in India has undergone a basic change from its colonial pattern. Discontinuity in modernization between macro-structures and micro-structures slowly disappeared. The introduction of the adult franchise and the federal parliamentary form of the political structure has carried new political values to all the sections of the population.

Planned legal reforms in Hindu marriage and inheritance laws have tremendously influenced the Hindu family system. Community development projects and the Panchayat Raj System created political awareness and participation in local-level management and the administration of justice. Caste too has undergone radical transformation making a lot of compromises with the changed conditions.

In spite of the British contact Indian society at the time of Independence has deep-rooted traditions. Still, it decided to go in the direction of modernity. There were people to support the cause of modernism and there were also people to cling to the traditional way of life. We had to strike out a balance between the two.

Thus people had to tolerate the coexistence of tradition with modernism. But, coexistence cannot last long in all the areas. Because, many a time, traditional ethos and values become irreconcilable. We were thus confronted with the practical problem of either sticking on to tradition or going on the path of modernization.

We decided to modernize our society at various levels. “What aspects of life were sought to be modernized and in what manner?” Prof. Ram Ahuja replies to this question in the following way “At the social level, we wanted social relations to be based on concepts like equality, human dignity, and social values which would ensure social mobility, removal of caste disabilities, amelioration of the conditions of women, and so forth. At the economic level, we wanted technological growth and distributive justice. At the cultural level, we wanted secularism, rationalism, and liberalism. At the political level, we desired representative government, democratic institutions, an achievement-oriented power-structure, and a greater voice and participation for Indians in the governance of the country. The means for agents selected for modernizing the society were planning, education, legislation, assistance from foreign countries, adopting the policy of liberalization, and the like.”

Due to modernization, so many changes are found in India:

1.     Introduction of new institutions like banking, mass media communication etc.
2.   Introduction of new value systems such as equality, justice, individualism, secularism etc.
3. Acceptance of scientific innovation.
4. Increase in the standard of living.
5.   Introduction of large scale industries.
6. Restructuring of the political system, i.e., the introduction of democracy.
7.   Introduction of structural changes in social institutions like marriage, family, caste etc.
8.  The emergence of the middle class.
9. There are some eliminative changes like the disappearance of cultural traits, behaviour pattern, values etc. For example, the abolition of feudal power.
10.  There is a shifting of attitude from sacred to secular.
11. Emergence of new forms because of the synthesis of old and new elements. For example, nuclear family in structure but functioning as joint.
12.   Adoption of new cultural traits such as a new election system.

CAUSES OF MODERNISATION:

What factors condition modernisation? What conditions lead to modernisation? What conditions hinder it? In exploring suitable answers to these questions sociologists look within the society to discover the various factors, groups, people and agencies and instruments that contribute to modernisation.

Modernisation is not caused by any single factor. It is the net result of a number of factors. Myron Weiner speaks of five main instruments which make modernisation possible: education, mass communication, ideology based on nationalism, charismatic leadership and coercive governmental authority.

1. Social Inequality. Education, that too higher education, pertaining to the fields of science and technology, provides the basis of modernisation. Education involves a sense of national loyalty and creates skills and attitudes essential for technological innovation. Edward Shils has also emphasised the role of education in the process of modernisation. Still, people like Arnold Anderson feel that formal education is not sufficient for teaching skills.

University education may increase the number of students with degrees without an increase in the number of people with modern skills and attitudes. By this, we cannot underscore the importance of education in national development which is believed to be associated with modernisation.

“National development depends upon a change in knowledge — what people know, skills — what people can do, and attitudes – what people can aspire and hope to get”. This is the reason why in the recent decade’s education including mass communication is given utmost importance.

2. Mass Communication. The process of modernisation hinges on the phenomenon of mass communication. The development of mass communication (including newspapers, periodicals and magazines, T.V., radio, telephone, movies, etc.) is an important means of spreading modem ideas at a faster rate.

The function of mass media is to open up to the large masses in society, new information, new thought, new attitude and new aspirations which lead them to new achievement. “The mass media is the device that can spread the requisite knowledge and attitudes quickly and widely”.

The only danger with the mass media is that if these are controlled by the government, they will spread the only one-sided view that suits their political ideology. But in democracies, however, the press is often given sufficient independence to express its views.

3. Ideology Based on Nationalism. Nationalism and democracy are very much linked with modernisation. Nationalism is connected with national awareness and political consensus. As far as the West is concerned, the democratic system came to be strengthened along with the development of nationalism. The nationalistic ideologies serve as a unifying influence in bridging social cleavages within plural societies.

They also help the political elite in changing the behaviour of the masses of people. Mass media plays a vital role in democratic societies to spread modern views, ideas, values, etc., by persuading the masses. But it is argued out that even though the political elite has a modern ideology. Their mere possession of it does not guarantee development from the modern perspective.

4. Charismatic Leadership. A Charismatic leader is in a better position to impress upon the people to adopt modern beliefs, values, practices and behaviour patterns. But the danger involved here is that this popular leader may take undue advantage of his position and use modern values, ideas etc., for his personal glorification rather than for national development.
5. Coercive Governmental Authority. A strong and stable government may adopt coercive measures to compel people to accept modern values and ways of life. It may also bring pressures on other governments and people to follow the same. The Government of America under the presidentship of George Bush (The previous President of U.S. A.) made use of various tactics and strategies to bring pressure on the underdeveloped and developing countries to follow modern ways and practices.
6. Other Factors:

To the list of factors explained above, we may add two other factors: (a) urbanisation and industrialisation; (b) a universal legal system.

(a) Urbanisation and Industrialisation. Urbanisation and industrialisation are the two interrelated processes that are assumed to be variably linked up with modernisation. These two processes can also be understood as two factors that accelerate the tempo of modernisation. ‘Urbanisation’ refers to the process of growth and expansion of cities.

Most of the modernised countries are either dominated by the cities or under the grip of the process of urbanisation. “Industrialisation” refers to the unprecedented growth and expansion of industries. It has become virtually the sine quo none of the economic and technological development.

(b) Universal Legal System. In a traditional society bound by traditional values and customs, the rate of change is relatively slow. But a society that functions on the basis of the universally accepted legal system is bound to be more ‘open’. The “rule of law” is true, one of the prerequisites of Modernisation.

The present legal system places a premium on the individual protecting his rights and assuring his freedom. This role of the legal system supports the cause of “Individualism”. The modern legal system has contributed a great deal to the scientific management of the industries.

Secularisation

Secularisation in Sociology is defined as the transformation of a society from getting influenced by religion to an independent secular one. Derived from the Latin word, secular means ‘present age or generation’ it was first defined by Brian Wilson in 1966 as “the process by which religious thinking, practices, and institutions lose social significance.” Prior to secularisation, human activity including work, healing, social and jurisdictional procedures was regulated by supernatural preconceptions. The introduction of secularism made these preconceptions lose their power and economy, justice, health, morality, education, and family were operated with considerable autonomy. 

M N Srinivas on secularization:

M. N. Srinivas had famously defined secularization as follows – ‘the term ‘secularization’ implies that what was previously regarded as religious is ceasing to be such, and it also implies a process of differentiation which results in the various aspects of society, economic, political, legal and moral, becoming increasingly discrete in relation to each other’. However, according to him, differentiation does not mean disconnection

Thus his definition has two aspects –

• Notion of religion itself
• Differentiation of Institutions

He further says, secularization as a process has been subsumed in Westernization which is a much broader term.

Elements/ Characteristics of secularisation 

The elements or characteristics of social change are determined by certain principles. 

1. Separation of state from affairs of religion thereby creates a distance between religion and society.
2. Related to work matters.
3. Personalising religious affairs.
4. Considering all rituals to be man-made or artificial.

Characteristics of secularisation are :

Secular meaning within religion.

• Modification of religious doctrines and practices to changing needs of members in response to the changing society
• Refraining religious institutions and individuals from getting involved with educational, philanthropic, and hospitals

Rational and reasonable 

• Man is free to choose what they want. Rationalisation is based on making choices according to reason rather than following them blindly
• Application of logic, intelligence, and wisdom over emotion and sentiments, thus speeding up secularisation in the society

Curiosity 

• Every secular man has the right to inquire about the causes and effects of the rituals performed
• They have freedom of choice and cannot be influenced to follow rituals blindly

Scientific temper and outlook

• Scientific influence forces man to question religion. This makes him a secular individual and an anti-fatalist who is not forced to follow doctrines and events that were initially made with the vision that humans were powerless to change them
• The scientific approach revolts against the religious outlook of man from the past

Modernization 

• While secularisation was brought mere 100 years ago, religious practices were conducted long before
• With people getting smarter and more intelligent every decade, modern society has kept itself away from the influence of religious faith and symbols while making everyday life decisions

Causes and effects of secularisation 

There are seven causes for secularisation in India 

Education 

• Education, western education to be specific, played an important role in diminishing Indian culture, and the practice of western culture became more prominent
• Modern education encouraged the generation to seek a scientific attitude in solving problems and the traditional religious beliefs
• Marriage is now based on a secular attitude rather than a sacred religious ceremony

Transportation and communication 

• With modern education came the invention of telephones and railways which gave the opportunity to mix around with people of different countries. This led to an exchange of ideas and the growth of liberal thoughts
• Caste system views regarding it changed

Reform movements 

• Religious and reform movements by leaders like Keshav Chandra Sen, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, and Mahatma Gandhi played their roles in bringing about secularisation in the country 

Urbanisation 

• Developed and semi-developed parts (metro cities) are more secular by the influence of western culture, education, transport and communication, and economic problems
• Rural areas are yet to be totally secularised

Legislation 

• Widow Remarriage Act, 1856, Caste Disabilities Removal Act, 1850, Special Marriage Act, 1872 enacted by the British were against the orthodox believers of that time
• Adoption of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, the Hindu Succession Act, 1956, the Hindu Widow Remarriage Act, 1956, the Maintenance Act has also played their role in a secular country

Western culture 

• India has been greatly influenced by western culture which lays importance on materialism, individualism, sensualism, non-religionism, and licence
• Political parties and leads speak the language of secularism
• Western culture has brought about changes not only in religion but also in literature and art

Indian Constitution 

•  Articles 27-30 deal with rights to freedom of religion and make India a secular state
• India is declared a secular country according to the amended preamble where every citizen has equal rights without discrimination of age, sex, caste, and creed

Secular meaning in India 

1. India has a multi religious society and even definition of religion is not fixed. Indian secularism according to Rajiv Bhargava is not strict separation of religion and politics, but explained in terms of ‘principled distance between religion and politics’. Indian society had been historically tolerant towards religious affairs and secularism in modern sense arrived only during 19th century as a part of cultural and religious reform movements. Nationalism, freedom struggle, growth of western education etc helped its rise.
2. There is also a plurality of view over its definitional and emergence aspects. A liberal plural view was taken by modern nationalists before independence. It called for separation of religion and other institutions and advocated religious pluralism. An ‘orthodox plural view’ was led by like of Gandhiji, Dayanand Saraswati, Ramakrishna Mission etc who saw Indian society as secular from beginning due to its marked tolerance. There was Marxist view also which interpreted secularism as disappearance of religion altogether.
3. Our constitutional and parliamentary democratic framework adopts liberal plural view. The constitution of India enacted the 42nd amendment, where the Preamble stated that India is a secular country.  As of now, there were pleas made to the supreme court on the 28th of July 2020, to omit the words secular and socialist from the preamble. According to Nehru ‘It does not mean a society where religion is discouraged, it means freedom of religion and conscience, including freedom for those who may have no religion’.
4. Our secularism is primarily directed against two evils – first, the religious strife between different religious communities and its extreme forms like communal violence and riots; and, secondly, the danger of religious communities overwhelming the state, each with its own view of ‘good life’ as valid for others too. Both arose as a problem in the second half of the 19th century. The conceptual construct of secularism is adopted in India by way of a solution to the problems, posed by fundamentalism and communalism. Thus, Indian secularism is not a result of tussle between the Church and the State as in case of Europe, but conceptualized as an anti-dote to twin evils of communalism and fundamentalism. It is more on lines of ‘sarva dharma sambhava’, rather than on strict ‘dharm nirpekhsta’. Articles of constitution like – Article 25-28 and also stress on freedom of faith and religion, rather than banishing it.
5. There are other alternate views of the everyday meaning of the word secularism in India. The most common use of secular in everyday language is as the ‘opposite of communal’. So, a secular person or state is one that does not favour any particular religion over others. Secularism in this sense is the opposite of religious chauvinism and it need not necessarily imply hostility to religion as such. In terms of the state-religion relationship, this sense of secularism implies equal respect for all religions, rather than separation or distancing. For example, the secular Indian state declares public holidays to mark the festivals of all religions.
6. Indian version of secularism also poses certain challenges. Supporters of Western notion of secularism accuse state of indulging into religious sphere as state supports many activities like Haj Pilgrim, manage shrines like Tirupati, Viashnodevi and so on.
7. Another set of complications is created by the tension between the Indian state’s simultaneous commitment to secularism as well as the protection of minorities. The protection of minorities requires that they be given special consideration in a context where the normal working of the political system places them at a disadvantage vis-à-vis the majority community. But providing such protection immediately invites the accusation of favoritism or ‘appeasement’ of minorities.
8. Andre Beteille comments that people of India are ‘bound more by culture than constitution’. Religion in India is not just practiced, but it is a part of dress, food and mannerism of people. In words of T N Madan, ‘religion and secular cannot be separated, in other words, religion cannot be in any meaningful sense privatized’. Thus, there is a difference in de-jure secularism as envisaged in constitution and defacto secularism as practiced by society.

Conclusion 

Secularism is practised in all modern states. This has greatly benefited people from all castes and creeds to get an equal opportunity with no discrimination on grounds of caste, creed, and culture. Indian culture has now been based on social movements and spiritual traditions. 

Globalisation

What is Globalization?

The word “globalisation,” which describes the emergence of an international network as part of an economic and social system, is derived from the English language. The term “globalisation,” as it is now known, was first used to describe an overview of the human experience in education in a 1930 publication titled Towards New Education.

Globalization is a complex process that involves the integration and interaction of economies, societies, and cultures on a global scale. It refers to the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of countries and regions around the world as a result of advances in technology, transportation, communication, and trade.

In the economic sense, globalization involves the liberalization of trade and investment policies, leading to an increase in cross-border flows of goods, services, capital, and labour. It has facilitated the growth of multinational corporations, which have become key players in the global economy.

Globalization has also had significant social and cultural impacts, as it has facilitated the spread of ideas, values, and beliefs across borders. This has led to greater cultural exchange and hybridization, as well as increased awareness of global issues and challenges.

Globalization is a process of increasing interdependence, interconnectedness and integration of economies and societies to such an extent that an event in one part of the globe affects people in other parts of the world.

In the domain of Sociology, it can be noted that the term “Globalization” has received extensive treatment in the hands of many sociologists. The sociologists perceive that though economical in origin, the term has enormous social implications.

Definition of Globalization

1. According to George Ritzer, “Globalization refers to the rapidly increasing worldwide integration and interdependence of societies and cultures.” 
2. According to Scholte, “Globalization as de-territorialization or the growth of „supra-territorial‟ relations between people. Globalization refers to a far-reaching change in the nature of “social space.” 
3. According to Albrow, “Globalization includes all those processes by which the peoples of the world are incorporated into a single society, global society.” 
4. According to Ronald Robertson, “Globalization as a concept refers both to the compression of the world and the intensification of consciousness of the world as a whole.” 
5. According to Anthony Giddens, “Globalization can thus be defined as the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa.” 
6. According to Water, “Globalization is a social process in which the constraints of geography on economic, political, social and cultural arrangements recede, in which people become increasingly aware that they are receding and in which people act accordingly.” 
7. According to Held et al, “Globalization can be thought of a process (or set of processes) which embodies a transformation in the spatial organization of social relations and transactions – assessed in terms of their extensity, intensity, velocity and impact – generating transcontinental or interregional flows and networks of activity, interaction, and the exercise of power.”
8. Collins Dictionary of Sociology, “Globalization of production refers to the integration of economic activities by units of private capital on awaked scale.” 
9. S.K. Misra and V.K. Pury, “In simple terms Globalization means integrating economy of a country with the world economy.” 
10. In simple words “globalization is refers to a process of increasing economic integration and growing economic interdependence between countries in the world economy.” 

​​The social impact of globalization on Indian society

India is a diverse country. India belongs to 16% of the world’s population. According to the 2011 census, 19,569 people were counted as speaking their mother tongue. Nonetheless, 96.71% of Indians speak one of the 22 languages that have been set aside as official. Different types of lifestyles and cultures are possible due to regional, topographical, and climate variations. India is rapidly urbanising, with more than 225 cities with a population of over 100,000 and at least ten cities alone with a population of over a million people, despite the fact that roughly 70% of the population still lives in rural areas.

Globalization has long had an impact on India. If you believe that, you are ignoring a long-standing, diverse and pluralistic civilization that was influenced by a wide range of “invading” (globalising) cultures to become what is now known as India. The Aryans, Greeks, Turks, Afghans, and Muslims were some of India’s earlier globalizers, as were the Portuguese, French, Dutch, and finally, the English. Globalizers that are less violent but still powerful are replacing the former ones that were brought in by invading armies.

1. Society:

The social hierarchy in traditional Indian culture is comparatively rigid. Children are taught about their social responsibilities and places at a young age. Religion is one difference that divides cultures. The traditional Hindu division between non-polluting and polluting occupations, however, is much more potent. These groups have been governed by rigid social taboos for countless years. India has one of the lowest rates of geographic and occupational mobility among developing nations. People typically stay in the same line of work as their parents and hardly ever relocate within the social structure.

2. Family:

Joint family culture is the foundation of Indian families. With nuclear families proliferating like mushrooms after a rainstorm, the joint families have become a strange surprise to Indians, especially to those living in metropolitan areas. We no longer have the patience to raise the next generation in the presence of their grandparents while integrating them into a blended family and instilling the elders’ values in them. Grandparents are now being treated more like guests or visitors by children, and this upbringing is one of the main causes of the growth of nursing homes for the elderly because these kids see their own parents as a burden when they are adults. 

3. Marriage Values:

Marriages have also lost their value in a similar way. The rising number of divorce cases and the occasional reports of extramarital affairs are very clear indicators. Nowadays, marriage is more like a professional bond or a so-called commitment to share life without compromising self-interests than it once was. Marriage was once thought of as a bonding of the souls that would remain connected even after death. Another effect of globalisation on Indian youth is the ego. 

4. Religion:

Religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism all originated in India. India has some of the most intensely religious societies and cultures in the world, making it one of the most religiously diverse countries. The majority of its citizens still place a significant emphasis on religion in their daily lives. Atheism and agnosticism, along with a self-described tolerance for other faiths, also have a noticeable influence in Indian society despite the importance of religion there.

The rest of British or Western culture thought, and customs came with the rise of Christianity, as well as the gradual abolition of traditional ways of life. This led to the gradual subversion or eradication of our traditional religions and cultures. The newly converted Indians to Christianity were urged to renounce both their traditional religion and their culture, which frequently had spiritual or religious overtones. An honourable Indian Christian convert would behave and dress in an Englishman’s manners. As a result, Hindus in India who became Christians were urged to think, act, and live like Englishmen.

5. Culture:

The mindset and mentality of the residing citizens serve as the foundation for any nation’s culture, which extends beyond the region and language of the region. Indian culture is exceptionally rich in terms of its history and resources, but more so because of how hospitable its people are. India is a bouquet of flowers with different religions, dialects, foods, traditions, customs, music, art, and architecture, among other things, all bundled into one cohesive and patriotic whole. The mindset of the Indian people, which welcomes, greets, and celebrates in unison with great affection and togetherness, is what unites all these differences. This is the richness of Indian culture, which has drawn many visitors to stay and take part in its enduring fragrance.

6. Food, Clothing and Dialect:

Indian food, clothing, and languages change depending on the state. While food has a variety of tastes, each one has a unique nutritional worth, and each location is unique and rich in its own medical preparations and natural treatments. Even the dress varies in various states, which is highly important in upholding a woman’s dignity. Although diverse cuisines from across the world have their own flavours to offer, the food elements that have gained the most popularity are junk food products, which have led to an increase in health problems in the nation. Again, attire, such as suits for men, is improper for the environment in India. Once more, the female attire serves to divert twisted minds.

Even Indians do not strongly support the promotion of either our national language or their native tongue. Instead, using Hindi as a first language is frowned upon by young people. We place more value on Indian languages than foreign ones, as seen by the manner that foreign languages like French, German, and Spanish are becoming more common in India, starting at the school level.

7. Greeting: 

Namaste, Namaskar or Namaskaram is a commonly spoken greeting or salutation in the Indian subcontinent. When spoken to another person, it is commonly accompanied by a slight bow made with hands pressed together, palms touching and fingers pointed upwards in front of the chest. 

8. Festivals: 

India, being a multi-cultural and multi-religious society, celebrates holidays and festivals of various religions. The 3 National holidays in India are Independence Day, Republic Day and Gandhi Jayanti, Popular religious festivals include the Hindu festivals of Diwali, Durga puja, Holi, Rakshabandhan, Dussehra, Ramzaan, Christmas etc. American festivals like Valentine’s day, Friendship day etc., are spreading across India.

9. Social Values:

We have the incorporated values of treating the guests as God, warm-hearted welcoming, greeting elders with due respect and celebrating every small festival with the great colour of enjoyment and togetherness. Such a comprehensive gathering with full hue and light can hardly be seen today. People have highly restricted themselves in social interaction. The interaction in the present generation is highly diplomatic, considering the financial status and wealth. We have lost our social values and cheerful blessing of togetherness. The present generations are more happily celebrating Valentine’s Day rather than Holi and Diwali.

10. Rural Poor:

Farmers in rural areas are generally unaware of the world economy. The majority of food crops are also grown as cash crops. Banks and multinational corporations provide advance loans to sugar cane producers. They used to offer fertilisers, hybrid seedlings, and cutting-edge machinery. The number of workers was lowered by this piece of equipment. As a result, rural residents are relocating from one location to another in search of work to support their families. Artificial fertilisers have taken the role of natural manure. Food costs increased as export crops began to replace subsistence crops, making it impossible for the poor to purchase with their small income. The same pattern persisted in apparel, housing, transportation, health, and other areas. They had to consume less of everything, even essentials.

Deaton (2003) opines that more than one-fourth of the World’s poor live in India. India’s economic liberalization in the early 1990s resulted in high rates of growth, whether it reduced the numbers of poor or benefitted only the increasingly wealthy urban elite is a question. Because of growing inequality, consumption by the poor couldn’t rise as fast as average consumption and poverty reduction were only about two-thirds of what it would have been had the distribution and consumption remained unchanged. The gap between rural and urban areas widened because of the vast differences in the levels of literacy availability of living facilities such as water, drainage, housing, power, lighting, food and transport etc.

11. Aged People:

With the influence of industrialization, urbanisation, and globalisation, Indian society is undergoing a fast shift. Although intergenerational links were a defining characteristic of the traditional family, they are eroding and changing as a result of conventional beliefs and institutions. Simple family manufacturing units have been supplanted by factories and large production as a result of industrialization. Nowadays, economic transactions only occur between people. Income disparities within the family are a result of individual employment and income. Young people move, particularly from rural to urban regions, due to pull and push forces like population pressure, broader economic possibilities, and contemporary communication.

The care of the old has become a significant concern in India due to the quickly rising senior population, joint family breakdown, rapidly growing effect of modernisation, and changing living patterns. In India, where blended families were the norm, caring for the elderly has never been an issue. Yet, the vulnerability of the elderly is fast rising due to a growing trend towards nuclear families, as well as increased education, urbanisation, and industry. The coping mechanisms of the younger and older family members are now being tested by a variety of conditions, leading to the neglect and abuse of the elderly in many different contexts, both inside and beyond the family.

Cultural Globalization

Cultural globalization refers to the spread of cultural elements such as beliefs, values, customs, languages, and behaviours across national and geographic borders. This process is facilitated by advances in communication technologies, transportation, and trade, as well as by the increasing interconnectedness of economies and societies.

Cultural globalization has been characterized by the increasing homogenization of cultural practices, as well as the emergence of hybrid cultural forms that blend local and global elements. Some critics argue that cultural globalization can lead to the loss of traditional cultural practices and the dominance of Western cultural values, while others argue that it can promote cultural diversity and cross-cultural understanding.

Examples of cultural globalization include the spread of popular culture through media such as television, music, and movies, the adoption of global fashion trends, the diffusion of cuisines from different parts of the world, and the proliferation of international tourism.

​​Factors contributing to the process of cultural globalization

Cultural globalization is the spread and exchange of cultural beliefs, values, and practices around the world. Here are some factors that contribute to the process of cultural globalization:

1. Technological advances: 

Advances in communication technology have enabled people from different parts of the world to connect and interact with each other easily. Social media platforms, online gaming, video conferencing, and streaming services have all contributed to the global exchange of cultural content.

2. Migration and mobility: 

The movement of people from one place to another has brought about the mixing and blending of cultures. As people relocate to new places, they bring their cultural practices and traditions with them, which then interact with the local culture and contribute to the formation of new cultural forms.

3. Global tourism: 

Tourism has played a significant role in cultural globalization. As more people travel around the world, they are exposed to different cultures and ways of life. This exposure has led to the spread of cultural practices, such as cuisine, fashion, and music, across borders.

4. Global trade: 

The exchange of goods and services across borders has led to the spread of cultural products such as music, films, and fashion. As products are marketed globally, they create a shared cultural experience that transcends national borders.

5. Cultural diplomacy: 

Governments and cultural organizations have used cultural exchange programs to promote their own cultures and to foster cultural understanding and dialogue. These programs have helped to create a global community that appreciates and respects the diversity of cultures around the world.

6. Globalization of media: 

The globalization of media has enabled the spread of popular culture across borders. Global media giants such as Disney, Warner Brothers, and Netflix have created a global market for movies, TV shows, and music, which has contributed to the spread of cultural products and practices.

All these factors have contributed to the process of cultural globalization by breaking down barriers and facilitating the exchange and mixing of cultural ideas, practices, and products.

Universalization and Parochialization:

Redfield’s Great and Little Traditions concept explains the contents of traditions present in a civilization that are inter-dependent and interactive. The process of that interaction and how the two traditions affect each other is well explained by Mckim Marriott’s concept of Universalization and Parochialization. Parochialization denotes the downward spread into the parochial village culture of elements from Sanskritic Hinduism (Great Tradition). Universalization is the converse upward spread of elements of village culture (Little Tradition) into Sanskritic Hinduism.

The mixture of elements in Hindu tradition has been going on from the earliest times and has resulted in a form of society and culture in which interactions of Little and Great Traditions has become endemic and stable. The patterns of this interaction, and the media through which it is sustained, have been identified with marriage, trade, religious festivals and pilgrimages, public administration, as well as activities of itinerant entertainers, bards, genealogists and holy men. The flow of reciprocal influence between Great and Little Tradition, or “higher” and “lower” levels of Hinduism is mainly channelled through such media.

In his study of Kishangarhi village in Uttar Pradesh, Mckim Marriot used the festivals and deity as media of this interaction, to explain the twin process of Universalization and Parochialization. In a diagrammatic form, the two can be shown as follows-

In Kishangarhi, the elements of both Sanskritic tradition and local culture are present in close adjustments and integration, as far as religion is concerned. Out of nineteen festivals celebrated at Kishangarhi, only fifteen are sanctioned in universal Sanskritic texts, which themselves form a very small part of the entire body of festivals sanctioned by Sanskritic literature. The villagers are confused or choose between various classical meanings for their festivals. And even the most Sanskritic of the local festivals have incorporated elements of ritual that arose out of the local peasant life.

Speaking of Universalization, Marriott thinks that the little traditions of the folk exercise their influence on the authors of Hindu great tradition who take up some elements of belief or practice, incorporate it in the philosophical Hinduism, and thus universalize that element by their teachings- oral or textual. Marriott suggests that the Goddess Lakshmi of Hindu Great Tradition is derived from such deities as he saw represented in Kishangarhi fashioned in images of dung. The nature and meaning of both are similar and the villagers identify the local images as Lakshmi. Another local annual festival, which Marriott considers an example of Universalization, is in which women go to their brothers to express their attachment by placing barley shoots on their brother’s heads and ears. The brothers reciprocate with gifts on the same day, as per classic Sanskritic tradition, the village priest the wrist of his patrons with coloured thread and get gifts in return. Marriott considers both as examples of Universalization.

The opposite process, the parochialization, is shown by Marriott through the following two instances. Sanskritic traditions sanction an annual festival Dussehra in honour of a great goddess of the Great Traditional Hindu pantheon, Durga. In Kishangarhi people include a diety, ‘Naurtha‘, who is worshipped in the morning and evening for nine days, and represented by figurines of mud. This deity has no place in the great tradition and had come into being as a linguistic corruption of nauratra (nine nights), associated with the Dussehra festival. By mere linguistic confusion in the communication between little and great tradition, he concludes, a minor goddess has been created. Another instance of parochialization is the existence of a stone in Kishangarhi, which is worshipped by the bride and bridegroom. This stone is supposed to represent venus, a divine sage of the Sanskritic traditions as informed by the Brahmin elders in the village. The origin of the stone is forgotten and is now regarded as the abode of ancestral spirits of the Brahmins who put it there. “Parochialization is a process of localization of limitation upon the scope of intelligibility of deprivation of literary form, of reduction to less systematic and less reflective dimensions. The process of parochialization constitutes the characteristic creative work of little communities within India’s indigenous civilization”.

Though the concept of universalization and parochialization may be useful as an analytical model, its empirical utility is doubtful, for the simpler reason that it is very difficult to establish the origin or spread of any “Parochial” element without a thorough historical study of each element. Moreover, the concept takes into account only orthogenetic processes of change, while the revolutionizing influence of communication and media (newspapers, periodicals, radio, cinema etc.) have been ignored.

Singh (1977) points out that the concept, particularly the universalization process, is anticipated by Srinivas concept of Sanskritization which explains the adoption of Sanskritic tradition by tribes to become a caste and by lower-order castes to achieve a higher status.

Difference between Parochialisation and Universalisation

Parochialisation and universalisation are supplementary to the con­cepts of little and great traditions. These are processes of cultural change. When the great tradition, i.e., the tradition of epics and sacred books undergoes change at the local or village level, it is parochialisa­tion or localisation of great tradition or civilisation. Parochialisation, therefore, is the cultural change made at the village level.

Universalisation, on the other hand, is a cultural change from lit­tle tradition to great tradition. Both these processes are related to the interaction between little tradition and great tradition. Interpreting the process of universalisation, Yogendra Singh observes that when the little tradition moves upward to the great tradition, it is the proc­ess of universalisation. And, when the great tradition moves downward to the local or village level, it is parochialisation.

His inter­pretation runs as below:

Elements of the little tradition, indigenous customs, duties and rites circulate upward to the level of the great tradition and are identified with its legitimate forms. This process Marriott calls ‘universalisa­tion’. Likewise, some elements of the great tradition also circulate downward to become organic past of the little tradition, and lose much of their original form in the process. He (McKim Marriott) used the term ‘parochialisation’ to denote this kind of transaction be­tween the two traditions.

In the process of parochialisation, obviously, there is some loss of the elements of great tradition. Whatever is laid down as elements of great tradition is reduced at village level or interpreted differently by local leaders of priestly castes. In this process there is de-sanskritisation.

A social movement is a mass movement and a collective attempt of people to bring about a change, or to resist any change. The concept central to any social movement is that people intervene in the process of social change, rather than remaining mere spectators or passive participants in the ebb and flow of life.

People seek to become proactive actors in altering the course of history. In order to achieve their aim of making a difference to the world they live in, they either initiate or become a part of collective action. Individuals consciously act together with a sense of engagement in a common enterprise.

Social movements possess a considerable measure of internal order and purposeful orientation. It is, in fact, this organization that strengthens the movement to challenge the established institutions. A social movement can be described more or less as a persis­tent and organized effort on the part of a relatively large group of people to bring about or resist change. However, the number of persons participating is not the criteria for describing any movement as a collective action.

The movement must have a leader to guide and execute the plan of action and possess the power to sustain the movement. Social movements, however, are different from pressure groups or institutional movements. Institutional movements are highly organized, permanent, and primarily occupation-based. Social movements are spontaneous and need not be issue-specific.

Meaning and Definitions of Social Movements:

Social movements can be viewed as collective enterprises to establish a new order of life. They have their inception in the condition of unrest, and derive their motive power on one hand from dissatisfaction with the current form of life, and on the other hand, from wishes and hopes for a new scheme or system of living. —Herbert Blumer

Mass movements mobilize people who are alienated from the going system, who do not believe in the legitimacy of the established order, and who therefore are ready to engage in efforts to destroy it. The greatest number of people available to mass movement will be found in those sections of society that have the fewest ties to the social order. —William Kornhauser

Social movements are those organized efforts, on the part of excluded groups, to promote or resist changes in the structure of society that involve recourse to non-institutional forms of political participation. —Doug McAdam

Rather than seeing social movements as expressions of extremism, violence, and depri­vation, they are better defined as collective challenges, based on common purposes and special solidarities, in sustained interaction with elites, opponents, and authorities. —Sidney Tarrow

A movement is not merely a perpetuated crowd, since a crowd does not possess organizational and motivational mechanisms capable of sustaining membership through periods of inaction and waiting. Furthermore, crowd mechanisms cannot be used to achieve communication and coordination of activity over a wide area, such as a nation or continent.

A social movement is a collectivity or a collective enterprise. The individual member experiences a sense of membership in an alliance of people who share his dissatisfaction with the present state of affairs and his vision of a better order. —Encyclopedia Britannica

Movements are something that people create to press for social change. Sociological definitions of movements stress on qualities such as collective and innovative behavior, the shifting and fluid boundaries of movement membership, and the willingness of members to disrupt order a little or a lot.

Social movements are generally seen as phenomena of the modern era and industrialized society whether located in the “First” world or not. Industrialization and urbanization, technological advancements, and ongoing democratization have allowed people to push for change collectively, and question the legitimacy of the existing order. Social movements can be defined as collective challenges based on common purposes.

It is a collective enterprise acting with some continuity to promote or resist a change in society. It is made up of a group with indefinite and shifting membership. In general, the leadership of such movements is determined by informal response of the members rather than by formal procedures that legitimize the authority. Gerlach and Hine have identified five key factors, which are operationally significant, and become the basis of a true movement.

The five key factors are:

i. Any social movement involves a group or collectivity, comprising different units, segmented on the basis of personal, structural, or ideological ties.

ii. The group includes individuals committed to the cause, who use their preexisting, significant social relationships to convince others to join the movement.

iii. For any movement to become successful there should be commitment to the movement. It also involves a separation, in a significant way, from the established order. The efforts of others, or one’s own experience bring forth a new set of values and induce changed patterns of behavior in individuals.

iv. The result is the emergence of an ideology, which codifies values and goals, and provides a conceptual framework by which goals maybe interpreted. The ideology also motivates change, defines opposition, and provides a basis for the unification of a segmented network of groups.

v. Real or perceived opposition from a society at large or from that segment of the established order, within which the movement has arisen, is also an important aspect of any social movement. In fact, it is this opposition that unifies the varying segments involved in a social movement.

A social movement arises when there emerges an issue or a set of issues that affect a significant proportion of people in some way or the other. Gradually, these issues start gaining importance and result in mass participation of people and in collective action. According to Smelser, “Collective movements refer to collective efforts to modify norms and values, which frequently (but not always) develop over longer periods of time.”

There are significant differences between collective action and movements. Forms of collective action such as riots, revolts, and revolution involve violent group outbursts. Some collective actions (crowds and riots) are generally unstructured and short-lived, whereas rebellion, revolution, and movements are more structured.

A riot is defined as an outbreak of temporary but violent mass disorder, which breaks out suddenly, carries fire and fury against a target or group, and dies in a short period, leaving behind death and destruction. Riots are an index of general unrest within the society. Revolt refers to a mass insurrection, or an uprising by some sections of society against the authority. It is an organized act of rising against, or breaking away from the established system of authority.

Rebellion refers to an opposition by the masses against the authority, not against persons or groups. Rebellion is confined to the efforts on the part of a portion of the state to overthrow the authority. Revolutions are highly organized political move­ments with a widespread public participation and designed to overthrow the regime or dissolve the state. Revolutions are generally accompanied by extensive violence. Revolution signifies the revolt of all sections of the society and their participation in the total dismantling of the state.

All social movements are collective actions, but all collective actions need not necessarily be social movements. A social movement may lead to, or transform itself into a revolution. A social movement may or may not be a mobilization of people against the state or system of governance, and may or may not involve violence.

Social move­ments generally mobilize members or participants to seek redressal of a grievance, or to struggle for specific goals and objectives. They often involve only a particular section of a population and manifest themselves only in a part of society. Social movements refer to a sustained and continuous collective action over a long period of time. Social movements generally aim at and result in change.

Features and Causes of Social Movements:

Features:

Some of the features of social movements are as follows:

i. The sense of belonging and group consciousness is very important for a social movement. Such consciousness can be brought about through active participation of the group members.

ii. Social movements lead to the creation of an entirely new social, economic, and political order.

iii. Most of the social movements tend to develop a new set of ideas, which become obligatory for the members of the group to adopt and follow.

iv. It is obvious that the social movements involve collective action rather than indi­vidual action.

v. Social movements may be organized or unorganized.

vi. Social movements may be peaceful in nature or they may also turn violent.

vii. The aim of a social movement is to bring about or resist social change in the society.

viii. The life of the social movement is not certain. This is because it may continue for a long period or it may die out soon.

Causes:

According to Vidya Bhushan Sachdeva (p. 285), social movements do not just happen. It is social unrest which gives rise to a social movement.

The social unrest may be caused by the following factors:

i. Cultural Drifts:

The society undergoes constant changes. The values and behavior are changing all the time in civilized societies. In the course of cul­tural drift, most people develop new ideas. To get these ideas operative in the society they organize a movement.

The development of a democratic society, the emancipation of women, the spread of mass education, the removal of untouchability, the equality of opportunity for both the sexes, and the growth of secularism are some examples of cultural drift.

ii. Social Disorganization:

A changing society is, to some extent, disorganized because changes in different parts of the society do not take place simultaneously. One part changes more rapidly than the other, thereby producing numerous lags. Industrialization has brought about urbanization which in turn has caused numerous social problems.

Social disorganization brings confusion and uncer­tainty, because the old traditions no longer form a dependable guide to behav­ior, and individuals become rootless. They feel isolated from society. A feeling develops that the community leaders are indifferent to their needs. Individuals feel insecure, confused, and frustrated. Confusion and frustration lead to social movements.

iii. Social Injustice:

When a group of people feel that injustice was done to them, they become frustrated and alienated. Such feeling of injustice provides fertile soil for social movements. The feeling of social injustice is not limited to the miserable poor. Any group, at any status level, may come to feel itself the victim of social injustice.

The wealthy class may feel a sense of injustice when faced with urban property ceiling law—or high taxes—intended to benefit the poor. Social injustice is a subjective value judgment. A social system is unjust when it is so perceived by its members. Thus, social movements occur when­ever such kind of social situation arises. In a stable and well-integrated society, the chances for social movements are very rare.

It is understood that people living in such a society are contented and satisfied. In a disorganized and con­tinuously changing society, social movements occur more frequently, as most people are dissatisfied with the existing conditions. Lack of social justice also makes people dissatisfied and paves the way for social movements. Modern society is more afflicted with social movements than the earlier societies.

Nature

The nature of social movements is complex and multifaceted, encompassing a range of characteristics that define their identity and purpose. Social movements are collective efforts by groups of individuals who come together to bring about social, political, or cultural change.  

1. Collective Action:

• Social movements are fundamentally about collective action. They involve groups of people who unite around a common cause or goal to address a perceived injustice or inequality. This collective action can take various forms, from protests and demonstrations to advocacy and community organizing.

2. Social and Political Change:

• The primary objective of social movements is to instigate social or political change. This change can relate to a wide array of issues, including civil rights, environmental protection, gender equality, labor rights, and more. Social movements often challenge the status quo and advocate for a more equitable and just society.

3. Grassroots Origins:

• Many social movements have grassroots origins, meaning they often start at the local or community level, driven by the concerns and passions of ordinary people. Grassroots movements may begin small but can gain momentum and influence as they grow.

4. Diverse Membership:

• Social movements typically attract a diverse membership with varying backgrounds, including individuals from different age groups, socio-economic statuses, ethnicities, and political affiliations. This diversity can contribute to the movement’s strength and breadth.

5. Mobilization and Activism:

• Activism is a hallmark of social movements. Activists within these movements engage in a range of activities, such as organizing rallies, conducting awareness campaigns, lobbying policymakers, and advocating for policy changes.

6. Identification of Injustice:

• Social movements often identify a perceived injustice or problem in society, whether it’s racial discrimination, economic inequality, environmental degradation, or any other issue. They work to raise awareness about the problem and mobilize support for addressing it.

7. Non-Institutional:

• While social movements may engage with formal institutions and political processes, they are distinct from institutionalized political parties or governmental bodies. They operate outside traditional power structures.

8. Fluid and Dynamic:

• Social movements can be fluid and dynamic, evolving over time in response to changing circumstances. They adapt to new challenges, opportunities, and strategies as they progress.

9. Media and Communication:

• Effective communication, often facilitated by media and technology, plays a crucial role in social movements. Social media, in particular, has become a powerful tool for raising awareness, organizing events, and mobilizing support.

10. Persistence:

• Social movements often require persistence and resilience. They may face obstacles, opposition, and setbacks, but their commitment to their cause and their determination to effect change keep them going.

Globalization and Social Change

Roles of Social Movements in Social Change

Importance of Social Movements vs Social Change

Resistance to Social Change

Theories of Social Movement

Structure- Functional Approach 

The structure-functional approach to analyzing social movements varies among non-Marxist scholars, with differing ideological positions on the need for social and political change and the role of movements in this process. This essay will discuss the various perspectives from liberal scholars, Indian scholars, and those who emphasize political development, as well as the functional utility of public protests in a parliamentary form of government.

• Liberal Scholars’ View on Social Movements: Liberal scholars such as William Kornhauser, Robert Nisbet, and Edward Shils argue that mass movements arise from mass societies characterized by extremism and anti-democratic tendencies. These scholars advocate for limiting the masses’ participation in politics to ensure efficient government functioning. They emphasize the importance of political change within existing institutions rather than revolutionary changes in political and economic structures.
• Indian Scholars’ Perspective: Some Indian scholars, while supporting the agitation for independence from foreign rule, disapproved of people’s agitation in the post-independence period. They considered such protests ‘dangerous’ and ‘dysfunctional’ for civilized society. Other Indian scholars, however, advocate for political change, focusing on the importance of political institutions and culture.
• Political Development Theory: Scholars who adhere to the theory of political development argue that existing rigid or incompetent political institutions inadequately meet people’s rising aspirations. As the gap between people’s expectations and the system’s performance widens, political instability, disorder, and mass upsurge increase. Rajni Kothari suggests that direct action is inevitable in India’s current parliamentary democracy due to the general climate of frustration, ineffectiveness of communication channels, and the continuous conflict between rulers and the ruled.
• Functional Utility of Public Protests: Some scholars argue that public protests have a functional utility even in parliamentary governments. David Bayley observes that before and after India’s independence, a large number of people felt that institutional means of redress for grievances were inadequate. Public protests, thus, serve as an alternative channel for expressing dissatisfaction and seeking change.

Marxist theory

Marxist theory of social movement is a theoretical framework for understanding the causes, dynamics, and consequences of social movements. It is based on the work of Karl Marx, who argued that social movements are a product of the class struggle between the bourgeoisie (the ruling class) and the proletariat (the working class).

Marxist theory of social movement sees social movements as a necessary part of the historical process of change. Marx argued that capitalism is a system that is inherently exploitative and that it will eventually be overthrown by the proletariat. Social movements play a key role in this process by mobilizing the proletariat and challenging the power of the bourgeoisie.

Marxist theory of social movement has been used to analyze a wide range of social movements, including labor movements, anti-colonial movements, civil rights movements, and environmental movements. It has also been used to develop strategies for social change.

Key concepts in Marxist theory of social movement

• Class struggle: Marx argued that the underlying cause of all social conflict is the class struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The bourgeoisie is the ruling class that owns the means of production, while the proletariat is the working class that sells its labor for a wage. The bourgeoisie exploits the proletariat by extracting surplus value from their labor. This surplus value is the source of the bourgeoisie’s wealth and power.
• False consciousness: Marx argued that the proletariat is often unaware of their exploitation by the bourgeoisie. This is because the bourgeoisie controls the ideological apparatus of society, such as the media, the education system, and the religious establishment. The bourgeoisie uses these institutions to promote false consciousness among the proletariat, which prevents them from challenging the status quo.
• Revolutionary consciousness: Marx argued that the proletariat must develop revolutionary consciousness in order to overthrow the bourgeoisie. Revolutionary consciousness is an awareness of the class struggle and a commitment to overthrowing capitalism. Social movements play a key role in developing revolutionary consciousness among the proletariat.

Stages of social movements

Marxist theory of social movement identifies three stages of social movements:

1. Pre-movement stage: This is the stage in which the conditions for social movement are present, but there is no organized movement yet. People may be feeling exploited and oppressed, but they are not yet aware of the need for collective action.
2. Movement stage: This is the stage in which an organized social movement emerges. People come together to challenge the status quo and to demand change.
3. Post-movement stage: This is the stage in which the social movement has achieved its goals or has been defeated. The movement may dissolve, or it may continue to exist in a different form.

Marxist strategies for social change

Marxist theory of social movement has been used to develop a number of strategies for social change. These strategies include:

• Mass mobilization: This strategy involves mobilizing the masses of people to challenge the power of the bourgeoisie. This can be done through strikes, protests, and other forms of direct action.
• Building alternative institutions: This strategy involves building alternative institutions that challenge the institutions of the bourgeoisie. For example, workers may build labor unions to challenge the power of employers.
• Raising consciousness: This strategy involves raising the consciousness of the proletariat so that they can understand their exploitation and take action to overthrow capitalism.

Conclusion

Marxist theory of social movement is a powerful tool for understanding the causes, dynamics, and consequences of social movements. It provides a framework for understanding how social movements can be used to challenge the status quo and to achieve social change.

Here are some examples of how Marxist theory of social movement has been used to analyze real-world social movements:

• The labor movement: Marxist theory has been used to analyze the history and development of the labor movement. Marxists argue that the labor movement is essential to the struggle for socialism.
• The civil rights movement: Marxist theory has been used to analyze the causes and dynamics of the civil rights movement. Marxists argue that the civil rights movement was a struggle against racial oppression and for socialism.
• The environmental movement: Marxist theory has been used to analyze the causes and dynamics of the environmental movement. Marxists argue that the environmental movement is a struggle against the environmental destruction caused by capitalism.

Marxist theory of social movement is a complex and nuanced theory. It has been used to analyze a wide range of social movements and to develop strategies for social change.

Resource Mobilisation Theory

Resource mobilization theory is used in the study of social movements and argues that the success of social movements depends on resources (time, money, skills, etc.) and the ability to use them. When the theory first appeared, it was a breakthrough in the study of social movements because it focused on variables that are sociological rather than psychological. No longer were social movements viewed as irrational, emotion-driven, and disorganized. For the first time, influences from outside social movements, such as support from various organizations or the government, were taken into account.

The Theory

In the 1960s and 1970s, sociology researchers began to study how social movements depend on resources in order to bring about social change. While previous studies of social movements had looked at individual psychological factors that cause people to join social causes, resource mobilization theory took a wider perspective, looking at the broader societal factors that allow social movements to succeed.

In 1977, John McCarthy and Mayer Zald published a key paper outlining the ideas of resource mobilization theory. In their paper, McCarthy and Zald began by outlining terminology for their theory: social movement organizations (SMOs) are groups that advocate for social change, and a social movement industry (SMI) is a set of organizations which advocate for similar causes. (For example, Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch would each be SMOs within the larger SMI of human rights organizations.) SMOs seek out adherents (people who support the goals of the movement) and constituents (people who are involved in actually supporting a social movement; for example, by volunteering or donating money). McCarthy and Zald also drew the distinction between people who stand to directly benefit from a cause (whether or not they actually support the cause themselves) and people who don’t benefit from a cause personally but support it because they believe it is the right thing to do.

According to resource mobilization theorists, there are several ways that SMOs can acquire the resources they need: for example, social movements might produce resources themselves, aggregate the resources of their members, or seek out external sources (whether from small-scale donors or larger grants). According to resource mobilization theory, being able to effectively utilize resources is a determinant of the success of a social movement. Additionally, resource mobilization theorists look at how an organization’s resources impact its activities (for example, SMOs that receive funding from an external donor could potentially have their choices of activities constrained by the donor’s preferences).

Types of Resources

According to sociologists who study resource mobilization, the types of resources needed by social movements can be grouped into five categories:

1. Material resources. These are the tangible resources (such as money, a location for the organization to meet, and physical supplies) necessary for an organization to run. Material resources can include anything from supplies for making protest signs to the office building where a large nonprofit is headquartered.
2. Human resources. This refers to the labor needed (whether volunteer or paid) to conduct an organization’s activities. Depending on the organization’s goals, specific types of skills may be an especially valuable form of human resources. For example, an organization that seeks to increase access to healthcare may have an especially great need for medical professionals, while an organization focused on immigration law may seek out individuals with legal training to get involved in the cause.
3. Social-organizational resources. These resources are ones that SMOs can use to build their social networks. For example, an organization might develop an email list of people who support their cause; this would be a social-organizational resource that the organization could use itself and share with other SMOs that share the same goals.
4. Cultural resources. Cultural resources include knowledge necessary to conduct the organization’s activities. For example, knowing how to lobby elected representatives, draft a policy paper, or organize a rally would all be examples of cultural resources. Cultural resources can also include media products (for example, a book or informational video about a topic related to the organization’s work).
5. Moral resources. Moral resources are those which help the organization to be seen as legitimate. For example, celebrity endorsements can serve as a type of moral resource: when celebrities speak out on behalf of a cause, people may be spurred to learn more about the organization, view the organization more positively, or even become adherents or constituents of the organization themselves.

Examples

Resource Mobilization to Help People Experiencing Homelessness

In a 1996 paper, Daniel Cress and David Snow conducted an in-depth study of 15 organizations aimed at promoting the rights of people experiencing homelessness. In particular, they examined how the resources available to each organization were linked to the organization’s success. They found that access to resources was related to an organization’s success, and that particular resources seemed to be especially important: having a physical office location, being able to obtain necessary information, and having effective leadership.

Media Coverage for Women’s Rights

Researcher Bernadette Barker-Plummer investigated how resources allow organizations to gain media coverage of their work. Barker-Plummer looked at media coverage of the National Organization for Women (NOW) from 1966 until the 1980s and found that the number of members NOW had was correlated with the amount of media coverage NOW received in The New York Times. In other words, Barker-Plummer suggests, as NOW grew as an organization and developed more resources, it was also able to also gain media coverage for its activities.

Criticism of the Theory

While resource mobilization theory has been an influential framework for understanding political mobilization, some sociologists have suggested that other approaches are also necessary to fully understand social movements. According to Frances Fox Piven and Richard Cloward, other factors besides organizational resources (such as the experience of relative deprivation) are important for understanding social movements. Additionally, they emphasize the importance of studying protests that occur outside of formal SMOs.

New Social Movement

New Social Movements

The term new social movements (NSMs) is a theory of social movements that attempts to explain the plethora of new movements that have come up in various western societies roughly since the mid-1960s (i.e. in a post-industrial economy), which are claimed to depart significantly from the conventional social movement paradigm.

Aberle’s Four Types of Social Movements: The term new social movements (NSMs) is a theory of social movements that attempts to explain the plethora of new movements that have comeup in various western societies roughly since the mid-1960s (i.e. in a post-industrial economy ), which are claimed to depart significantly from the conventional social movement paradigm.

There are two central claims of the NSM theory. Firstly, the rise of the post-industrial economy is responsible for a new wave of social movement. Secondly, these movements are significantly different from previous social movements of the industrial economy. The primary difference is in their goals, as the new movements focus not on issues of materialistic qualities such as economic well-being, but on issues related to human rights (such as gay rights or pacifism).

Social Movements Types

Reform Movements:
Reform movements are organized to carry out reforms in some specific areas. The reformers endeavor to change elements of the system for better. For example: Civil Rights Movement, Women’s Liberation Movement, Arya Samaj Movement, Brahmo Samaj Movement etc.

Revolutionary Movements:
The revolutionary movements deny that the system will even work. These movements are deeply dissatisfied with the social order and work for radical change.

They advocate replacing the entire existing structure. Their objective is the reorganization of society in accordance with their own ideological blueprint. Revolutionary movements generally become violent as they progress. Example: The Protestant Reformation Movement, the Socialist Movement, the Communist Revolution of China.

Reactionary or Revivalist Movement:
Some movements are known as reactionary or regressive movements. These aims to reverse the social change .They highlight the importance and greatness of traditional values, ideologies and institutional arrangements. They strongly criticize the fast moving changes of the present.

Resistance Movement:
These movements are formed to resist a change that is already taking place in society. These can be directed against social and cultural changes which are already happening in the country.

Utopian Movement:
These are attempts to take the society or a section of it towards a state of perfection. These are loosely structured collectivities that envision a radically changed and blissful state, either on a large scale at some time in the future or on a smaller scale in the present. The Utopian ideal and the means of it are often vague, but many utopian movements have quite specific programmes for social change. The Hare Krishna Movement of the seventies, the movement towards the establishment of Ram Rajya and the Sangh Parivar, the Communists and Socialists pronouncement of a movement towards the classless, casteless society free from all kinds of exploitation etc.

Insurrection & Counter Movement

An insurrection is a violent uprising against an established government or authority. It is often characterized by spontaneous violence and a lack of organization. Counter social movements are social movements that oppose other social movements. They are often organized by groups who feel threatened by the goals or methods of the original social movement.

There are a number of factors that can lead to an insurrection, including:

• Economic inequality: When a large portion of the population is living in poverty while a small elite controls most of the wealth, it can create resentment and frustration that can lead to violence.
• Political oppression: When a government is repressive and does not allow for dissent, it can create a sense of hopelessness and despair that can lead to insurrection.
• Social injustice: When a group of people feels that they are being unfairly treated or discriminated against, it can lead to anger and resentment that can erupt into violence.

Counter social movements are often motivated by a fear of change. They may be opposed to the goals of the original social movement, or they may be opposed to the methods that the original social movement is using to achieve its goals.

Counter social movements can take a number of different forms. They may be organized groups that hold protests and rallies. They may also be more informal groups that spread misinformation and propaganda. In some cases, counter social movements may resort to violence to achieve their goals.

Examples of insurrections

• The American Revolution (1775-1783)
• The French Revolution (1789-1799)
• The Russian Revolution (1917)
• The Chinese Revolution (1949)
• The Cuban Revolution (1959)

Examples of counter social movements

• The Ku Klux Klan (KKK)
• The Westboro Baptist Church
• The Alt-Right
• The Tea Party movement
• The anti-vaccine movement

Relationship between insurrections and counter social movements

Insurrections and counter social movements are often related. Counter social movements can play a role in inciting insurrections, and insurrections can lead to the formation of new counter social movements.

For example, the KKK was formed in response to the Reconstruction era in the United States, a period of time when African Americans were gaining new rights and opportunities. The KKK was a counter social movement that sought to maintain white supremacy and to prevent African Americans from achieving full equality.

In recent years, the rise of social media has made it easier for counter social movements to spread their message and to recruit new members. This has contributed to the growth of insurrections such as the January 6th attack on the US Capitol.

Peasant Movement:
Peasant movement is defined by Kathleen Gough as an attempt of a group to effect change in the face of resistance and the peasant are people who are engaged in an agricultural or related production with primitive means who surrender part of their or its equivalent to landlords or to agents of change. The history of peasant movements can be traced to colonial period when repressive economic policies, the new land revenue system, the colonial administrative and judicial system and the ruin of handicrafts leading to the overcrowding of land transformed the agrarian structure and impoverished the peasantry. In the zamindari system peasants were left to the mercies of the Zamindars who exploited them in form of illegal dues. The British government levied heavy land revenue in the Ryotwari areas. Peasants were forced to borrow money from the moneylenders and they were reduced to the status of tenants at will, share croppers and landless laborers while their lands, crops and cattle passed into the hands to landlords, trader moneylenders and such peasants. When the peasants could take it no longer they resisted against the oppression and exploitation through uprisings. Peasant Movements occupy an important place in the history of social unrest in India though the aims and objectives of these movements differ in nature and degree from region to region. It is in this sense that these movements also aimed at the unification of the peasants of a region, development of leadership, ideology and a peasant elite. Through these movements emerged a new power structure and peasant alliance. The genesis of peasant movements rest in the relationship patterns of different social categories existing within the framework of feudal and semi feudal structure of our society. In the post Independence period the nature and objectives of the peasant movement have changed to getting remunerative prices for agricultural produce, to increase agricultural production, to establish parity between prices of agricultural produce and industrial goods and to get minimum wages for the agricultural laborers.

Some of the important peasant uprising:
1770- Sanyasi rebellion
1831- Wahabi uprising
1855- Santhal uprising
1859- Indigo revolt
1890-1900- Punjab Kisan struggle
1917-18- Champaran satyagraha
1921- Moplah rebellion
1928- Bardoli satyagarya
1946- Telangana movement
1957- Naxalbai movement

Women’s Movement:
The women’s movement in India is a rich and vibrant movement which has taken different forms in different parts of the country. Fifty years ago when India became independent, it was widely acknowledged that the battle for freedom had been fought as much by women as by men. One of the methods M K Gandhi chose to undermine the authority of the British was for Indians to defy the law which made it illegal for them to make salt. At the time, salt-making was a monopoly and earned considerable revenues for the British. Gandhi began his campaign by going on a march – the salt march – through many villages, leading finally to the sea, where he and others broke the law by making salt. No woman had been included by Gandhi in his chosen number of marchers. But nationalist women protested, and they forced him to allow them to participate. The first to join was Sarojini Naidu, who went on to become the first woman President of the Indian National Congress in 1925. Her presence was a signal for hundreds of other women to join, and eventually the salt protest was made successful by the many women who not only made salt, but also sat openly in marketplaces selling, and indeed, buying it. The trajectory of this movement is usually traced from the social reform movements of the 19th century when campaigns for the betterment of the conditions of women’s lives were taken up, initially by men. By the end of the century women had begun to organize themselves and gradually they took up a number of causes such as education, the conditions of women’s work and so on. It was in the early part of the 20th century that women’s organizations were set up, and many of the women who were active in these later became involved in the freedom movement. Independence brought many promises and dreams for women in India – the dream of an egalitarian, just, democratic society in which both men and women would have a voice. The reality was, however, somewhat different. For all that had happened was that, despite some improvements in the status of women, patriarchy had simply taken on new and different forms. By the 1960s it was clear that many of the promises of Independence were still unfulfilled. It was thus that the 1960s and 1970s saw a spate of movements in which women took part: campaigns against rising prices, movements for land rights, peasant movements. Women from different parts of the country came together to form groups both inside and outside political parties. Everywhere, in the different movements that were sweeping the country, women participated in large numbers.

Everywhere, their participation resulted in transforming the movements from within. One of the first issues to receive countrywide attention from women’s groups was violence against women, specifically in the form of rape, and ‘dowry deaths’. This was also the beginning of a process of learning for women: most protests were directed at the State. Because women were able to mobilize support, the State responded, seemingly positively, by changing the law on rape and dowry, making both more stringent. In the early campaigns, groups learnt from day to day that targeting the State was not enough and that victims also needed support. So a further level of work was needed: awareness raising so that violence against women could be prevented, rather than only dealt with after it had happened. Legal aid and counseling centres were set up, and attempts were made to establish women’s shelters. Knowledge was also recognized as an important need. The women’s activity was geared towards improving the conditions of women’s lives. In recent years, the euphoria of the 1970s and early 1980s, symbolized by street-level protests, campaigns in which groups mobilized at a national level, has been replaced by a more considered and complex response to issues. In many parts of India, women are no longer to be seen out on the streets protesting about this or that form of injustice. This apparent lack of a visible movement has led to the accusation that the women’s movement is dead or dying. While the participation of urban, middle class women is undeniable, it is not they who make up the backbone of the movement, or of the many, different campaigns that are generally seen as comprising the movement. The anti-alcohol agitation in Andhra Pradesh and similar campaigns in other parts of India were started and sustained by poor, low-caste, often working-class women. The movement to protect the environment was begun by poor women in a village called Reni in the northern hill regions of India, and only after that did it spread to other parts of the country. One of the biggest challenges women have had to face in recent years is the growing influence of the religious right in India. Right-wing groups have built much of their support on the involvement of women: offering to help them with domestic problems, enabling them to enter the public space in a limited way, and all the while ensuring that the overall ideology within which they operate remains firmly patriarchal. For activists too, this has posed major problems. It has forced them to confront the fact that they cannot assume solidarity as women that cuts across class, religion, caste, ethnic difference. It is important to recognize that for a country of India’s magnitude, change in male-female relations and the kinds of issues the women’s movement is focusing on will not come easy. For every step the movement takes forward, there will be a possible backlash, a possible regression. And it is this that makes for the contradictions, this that makes it possible for there to be women who can aspire to, and attain, the highest political office in the country, and for women to continue to have to confront patriarchy within the home, in the workplace, throughout their lives.

Backward Caste Movement:
The Backward castes have been deprived of many social, economic, political and religious privileges. These people provided manual labor and the untouchables occupied the lowest position among the caste hierarchy. They were subjected to extreme form of exploitation. The colonial power accentuated the disparities in the distribution of economic power. The atrocities united the lower castes against the upper castes. Some of the important backward caste movement which came up was Satyashodak Samaj and Nadar Movement which consolidated the masses along the castelines.E.V Ramaswamy started Self-Respect movement against the Brahmins in South India. The SNDP movement in Kerala was more of a reformist movement. In 1950s there was a widespread desire among the non-Brahmin castes to be categorized as Backward .Subsequently Backward Class commission was set up to look into the conditions and requirements of these classes. Mandal Commission submitted its report in 1980 recommending reservations for backward castes in educational institutions and government offices. However this move resulted in anti- Mandal Commission movement which resulted in large scale violence and many students lost their lives.

Dalit Movement:
Dalits are the suppressed people at the lost rung of the cast-based hierarchy. Their inferior occupations and low levels of ascriptive status make them vulnerable for attacks at the hands of upper-caste people. The organizational efforts made by Dalit leadership for uplifting their status are known as Dalit movement. It is a protest against untouchability ,casteism and discrimination faced by the dalits.Dalit movement indicates some trends of protest ideologies which entail the following -withdrawal and self organization, high varna status and extolling of non-Aryan culture’s virtues, abandoning of Hinduism and embracing other religions like Buddhism and Islam. Mahatma Gandhi in 1923 founded the All India Harijan Sevak Sangh to start education and schools for the dalits.Another most important dalit leader Dr.Ambedkar struggled to secure the basic human dignity to the dalits.The Mahad Satyagarh for the right of water led by him was one of the outstanding movements of the dalits to win equal social rights. The role of All India Depressed Classes Association and All India Depressed Classes Federation were the principal organizations which initiated a movement to improve the conditions of the dalits.These organizations aimed at improving their miserable conditions and to spread education among them. They worked to secure rights of admission to school, drawing water from the public wells, entering the temples and to use the roads.

People may damage a bus and attack its driver when the bus has run over a child. This is an isolated incident of protest. Since it flares up and dies down, it is not a social movement.

1. A social movement requires sustained collective action over time.
2. Such action is often directed against the state and takes the form of demanding changes in state policy or practice.
3. Spontaneous, disorganized protest cannot be called a social movement Collective action must be marked by some degree of organization.
4. This organization may include a leadership and a structure that defines how members relate to each other, make decisions and carry them out
5. Those participating in a social movement also have shared objectives and ideologies.
6. A social movement has a general orientation or way of approaching to bring about (or to prevent) change.
7. These defining features are not constant. They may change over the course of a social movement’s life.

Social movements often arise with the aim or bringing about changes on a public issue, such as ensuring the right of the tribal population to use the forests or the right of displaced people to settlement and compensation; While social movements seek to bring in social change, counter movements some times arise in defence of status quo. There are many instances of such counter movements.

1. When Raja Rammohan Roy campaigned against sati and formed the Brahmo Samaj, defenders of sati formed Dharma Sabha and petitioned the British not to legislate against sati.
2. When reformers demanded education for girls, many protested that this would be disastrous for society. When reformers campaigned for widow remarriage, they were socially boycotted
3. When the so called ‘lower caste’ children enrolled in schools, some so called Tipper caste’ children were withdrawn from the schools by their families.
4. Peasant movements have often been brutally suppressed
5. More recently the social movements of erstwhile excluded groups like the Dalits have often invoked retaliatory action.
6. Likewise proposals for extending reservation in educational institutions have led to counter movements.

Social movements cannot change society easily Since it goes against both entrenched interests and values, there is bound to be opposition and resistance. But over a period changes to take place.

Social Movement and Social Change

1. It is important to distinguish between social change in general and social movements. Social change is continuous and ongoing process. The broad historical processes of social change are the sum total of countless individual and collective actions gathered across time and space. Social movements are directed towards some specific goals. It involves long and continuous social effort and action by people. Sanskritisation and westernization are examples of social change and the 19th century social reformers effort to change society are examples of social movements.
2. Social movements in India have not only been protest and dissent movements but also reform and reaction aryas well as socio-religious and freedom movements. These movements defined as “collective effort to promote/resist change” came into origin only after uniformity in intellectual orientations, social structures, ideological presences, and perceptions of truth came into existence. It is a well-known fact that characteristics of society shape the styles of movements. Therefore, the elements of social structure and the future vision of society provide the focal point of analysis of social movements.

The orientation of social movements :

Till the British period, the orientation of social movements in our country was religious, though national liberation movement also emerged after the 1930s which was overtly against the forces of imperialism and colonialism. But, after independence, the new situation that emerged led to divergence in the targets of attack, say political authority, economic exploitation, cultural domination, male domination and humiliation of women and so forth. This led to proliferation of diverse movements.

Classification of Social Movements :

1. Social movements have been classified on the basis of numerous criteria. Nature of change intended, organizational mode and strategy, nature of demands, groups and collectivities involved are some of the major criteria used for the purpose, e.g., tribal movement, Harijan movement, women’s movement, peasant movement, student movement, industrial workers’ movement, and on the basis of the nature of collectivities against which they are led, e.g.,anti-Brahminism, anti-leftist, anti-Dalits and so on.
2. Yet other basis of classification is their territorial anchorage, e.g., locality in which they originate and operate, e.g., Vidharbha movement, Telangana movement, Chhattisgarh movement, Jharkhand or Vananchal movement, Uttaranchal movement, and so on. Such names indirectly point out the goals pursued
3. Movements are also named after the issues they pursue, e.g., Anti-Hindi movement, Anticorruption movement, Movement are named after their initial or top leadership too, e.g., Gandhian movement, Ramakrishna movement, J.R (Jayaprakash) movement, etc. M.S.A.Rao has talked of three types of movement-reformist, transformative, and revolutionary.

All these movements are characterized by five elements

1. Collective goal
2. Common ideology of widely accepted programme
3. Collective action
4. Minimal degree of organization and leadership.
5. Thus, a ‘social movement’ with above characteristics is different from ‘agitation’ as the latter has no ideology and no organization.
6. Ghanshyam Shah holds that some co-active actions termed by some scholars as ‘agitations’ are considered by others as movements; e.g., demand for the formation of linguistic states. Shah himself considers them as ‘movements’ or a part of a social movement of a particular stratum of society. Thus demand for Jharkhand in Bihar, Uttaranchal in Uttar Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh in Madhya Pradesh can be described as social movements according to him.
7. Desai held that some movements are caused by the inability of our Constitution to protect the civil and the democratic rights of people. Rajni Kothari is of the opinion that failure of the state in ‘social transformation’ of society in which repression and intimidation of large masses of people has become common compels people to assert their rights through various struggles.
8. Gurr and M.S.A. Rao have explained social movements in terms of ‘relative deprivation.’ Rao focuses on the ‘possibility of doing something by the sufferer’ along with relative deprivation.
9. Ghanshyam Shah and T.K. Oommen do not accept Relative Deprivation Approach in explaining social movements. Oommen’s argument is that deprivation theorists do not view movements as ‘ongoing process of change’. They also do not deal with the sources of deprivation. Shah holds that deprivation theorist ignore the importance of consciousness and the ideological aspects of the participants.

Peasant and Farmers Movements

The study of peasant movements has emerged as an important area in the study of social movement in India. Since India is essentially an agrarian country, it is natural that the study of agrarian problems has assumed a central place in sociological issues.

1. Patterns of landownership, tenancy, use and control of land, all reflect the complex nature of agrarian structure. The complexity of agrarian structure is also manifested in the agrarian class structure which has existed since long in rural areas. The diversity of land systems and agrarian relations has produced an elaborate structure of agrarian classes. The later vary from one region to another. However, based on the nature of rights in land and the type of income derived from it, Daniel Thorner has identified three major agrarian classes in India. They are Maliks, Kisans and Mazdoors. Big landlords and rich landowners are included under the category of Maliks. Kisans are inferior to Maliks comprising self-cultivating owners of land They are small landowners and tenant Mazdoors earn their livelihood from working on others lands. This category includes poor tenants, share-croppers and landless labourers. This classification of agrarian classes broadly reflects the Indian reality.
2. But it needs to be recognized that the agrarian hierarchy, Corresponds with the caste hierarchy which we find in different parts of the country. The rich landowners and moneylenders mainly belong to the upper castes. The middle and small peasants come from the traditional peasants castes. The landless labourers belong primarily to the lower classes. Such a position merely shows a pattern. It does not refer to the exact situation in the rural areas.
3. The nature of agrarian class structure has been mentioned here to understand the structural background in which movements have been launched by different classes of peasantry. D.N. Dhanagare’s study of peasant movements in India helps us to know the nature of these movements. According to Dhanagare, the term ‘peasant movement’ refers to all kinds of collective attempts of different strata of the peasantry either to change the system which they felt was exploitative, or to seek redress for particular grievances without necessarily aiming at overthrowing the system. Peasant movements thus include all kinds of movements, violent and non-violent, organized and specific.

Issues Involved in Peasant Movements :

1. Some were related to conflicts between tenants and landlords; some were because of the oppression by zamindars of majority religious community (Hindus), and
2. Some were because of the factors like communal outburst, provocation by government officials and police etc., for improving economic conditions, demands for higher wages, forced labour (beggar) and so on.
3. It is held by some writers that Gandhi mobilized the peasantry for the cause of national freedom and not for fighting against zamindars and money lenders.
4. There are other writers who suggest that the relationship between peasant movements and the national movements was one of reciprocity, i.e., give and take. The tasks of taking up peasants class demands as well as fighting against imperialists were dealt with simultaneously In any case peasants specific needs and interests of security of tenure, debt relief and cheap credit etc., could not be emphasized strongly by the nationalist leaders.

After independence, however, the leaders tried to mobilize peasantry against zamindars and landlords. The exploited peasantry was not a united group as they were vertically aligned with the masters through factional ties. Initially, the poor peasants were least militant but as the anti-landlords and anti-rich peasant sentiment was built up by the middle peasant, the revolutionary energy of the poor peasant was transformed into a revolutionary force. But peasants taking up revolutionary action were not on all India basis. It was only in some regions.

Six different viewpoints of the agrarian movements in India have been studied by sociologists :

1. In terms of their functioning as associations at micro levels;
2. Relationship between politics and agrarian movements, i.e., mobilizing peasants by political parties like Congress, communists etc.
3. Relationship between social structure (caste, class and power) and agrarian movements;
4. Relationship between the green revolution and agrarian movements. (The green revolution not only affected the traditional agrarian relations but it also accentuated economic disparities and accelerated social aspirations of villagers);
5. Relationship between agrarian legislation and movements (i.e., movements causing legislation and legislation causing movements); and
6. Relationship between mobilization and organization of movements. Some movements for the welfare of peasants were organized on Gandhian principles. Two such movements were Bhoodan movement of Vinoba Bhave and Sarvodya movement of Jayaprakash Narayan. The immediate objective of the Bhoodan movement was collecting land from the rich and its distribution to the poor. However, this movement failed in achieving its goal.
7. India has a long history of peasant movements. The nineteenth century India is considered a treasure house of materials on peasant heroism. The movements in the period between 1858 and 1914 tended to remain localized disjointed and confined to particular grievances. The most militant peasant movement of this period was the Indigo Revolt 1859-60 in Bengal. Only a decade later, similar violent disturbance took place in Babana and Bogara in Bengal in 1872-73. These struggles were directed against Zamindars who were the symbols of exploitation and atrocities.
8. The landowning and money-lending classes had consolidated their position not only in zamindari areas but also in Ryotwari and Mahalwari areas. The small landholders, tenants and share-croppers were the victims of the moneylender’s tyranny. Accordingly, the peasants revolted against the oppression of the powerful agrarian classes. One of such revolts in Ryotwari area is known as the Deccan Riots of 1875 that occurred in western Maharashtra. A series of Moplah uprisings in Malabar region of southern India also took place throughout the nineteenth century. They were expressions of long-standing agrarian discontent among the poor Moplah peasantry.
9. It is fascinating to note that peasants’ grievances also became a component of the India’s freedom struggle during the early twentieth century. The Champaran Movement in 1917, the Kheda Satyagrah of 1918 and Bardoli Satyagrah of 1928 were the major non-violent anti-British struggles. Since Mahatma Gandhi was involved in these satyagrahas, they are popularly known as Gandhian agrarian movements. Most of these movements took up relatively major agrarian issues but they succeeded in arousing political awareness among the masses. Thus, the most significant aspect of these movements was their simultaneous involvement in the nation-wide struggle for freedom.
10. However, peasants in other parts of the country were not inactive. They were equally restive and raised their grievances. Between1920 and 1946 several peasant organizations and movements emerged in Bihar and Bengal which protested against the deplorable condition of the middle and poor peasants. The first organization to be founded was the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha and in 1936 the All India Kisan Sabha.

The peasants organized by the Sabha. The peasants organized by the Sabhas demanded freedom from economic exploitation for peasants, workers and all other exploited classes. The more important peasant movements in different regions were: Tebhaga, Telangana and Naxalite. The Bhoodan and Sarvodya movements also took up peasants interests but they were taken up not by the peasants themselves but by Vinoba Bhave and Jayaprakash Narayan.

Peasant Movement After Independence

We have briefly discussed above the nature and features of peasant movements to familiarize ourselves with the role of social movements in social change. True, these movements have not always been successful in achieving their immediate goals but they created the climate which produced post-Independence agrarian reforms. Certain issues which had dominated colonial times changed after independence. For land reforms, zamindari abolition, declining importance of land revenue and public credit system began to alter rural areas. The period after 1947 was characterized by two major social movements-the Naxalite struggle and the ‘new farmer’s movements’.

Tebhaga movement (1946-47) was caused and facilitated by a large number of factors

1. The 1943 famine,
2. Drive against jotedars, hoarders and black-marketers,
3. Social solidarity of the tribals involved in the movement, and
4. The increased bargaining capacity of share-croppers.

Since this movement was limited in its spread it failed The wedge between Hindus and Muslims-the participants groups i.e., communal politics, lack of harmony between caste and class and the upper class manipulation of loyalties within the peasants also contributed to its failure (Dhanagare).

Telangana movement: The Telangana movement (1946-52) of Andhra Pradesh was fought against the feudal oppression of rulers and local land owners. The process of sub infeudation and oppressive social structure. Rural telangana’s political economy consisted of jagirdars or deshmukhs. They were intermediary land owners with higher title cum-money lenders cum-village officials and were mostly form the upper caste or influential muslim community. Because to their privileged economic and political status they could easily subject the poor peasantry to extra economic coereion though vetty (forced labour) system. At the bottom of agrarian hierarchy were the untouchable castes and tribals.

The Inadian national congress, Andhra Jan Sangham and Andhra Maha Sabha Raised the issue of poor Condition of peasantry since1920’s.Several resolutions were passed against the jagirdari and the vetty system by AMS. Significantly Andhra Communist party was established in 1934. After ban on community party was lifted in 1942, they captured the leadership of AMS. They raised the issue of ‘abolition of vetty prevention of reek-renting and eviction of tenants, ‘reduction of taxed revenues and rents’, ’confirmation of occupancy rights of the cultivating tenants’. All these process of mobilization culminated into political consciousness of peasant and led to new awakening.

After 1947 the movement took a new turn with India independence and subsequent refusal of nizam to join Indian union. The CPI penely called for guerrilla struggle against the razakars and government forces by forming village defense committees. Administration of Nizam came to stand still in near 4000 village vetty was abolished Untouchbility was prohibited Land was redistributed very quickly. Unpaid debts were cancelled tenants were given full tenancy rights. Armed women defended themselves against the nazakar (k. Lalita, Vekannabirn 1989) Indian union initiated Army Action Against Nizam and subsequently against CPI in1978. They pained protracted struggle however it was difficult for communist cadre to withstand against Army. Several hundreds of peasant rebels killed The logic of movement was rethought by the leaders and common peasantry. In 1951the politburo of CPI called of the struggle.

The Naxalbari Movement : When the United Front government with CPI participation came into power in West Bengal in February 1967, some active and vocal groups emerged One of them under the leadership of Charu Majumdar and Kanu Sanyal insisted on developing militancy on the peasant front, and preparing peasants for an armed struggle. Initially, the leaders preached massive participation of peasants for forcible occupation of benamy land but later on they emphasized liquidation of class enemies through the use of guerrilla tactics. Thus, mass movements were replaced by underground small group squads. This guerrilla activity of Naxalbari movement struck most in West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh and later on in Bihar and presently in Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.

The peasant revolt in Naxalbari started in 1972 in three areas in Darjeeling district of West Bengal. Landowners were called jotedars and tenants were called adhiari. The status of adhiari was precarious. They were so much exploited and treated like bonded labour that it led to peasant revolt in the 1950s and the 1960s.

Kanu Sanyal and others made their first entry amongst the exploited peasants in the 1960s, demanding
abolition of zamindari, land to the tiller, prevention of tenant eviction, etc. In the second phase of Naxalbari peasant uprising in the late 60s and early 1970s, secret combat groups were formed and peasants were urged to seize the lands of jotedars and the plantation workers who had purchased land from poor peasants, cultivate the seized land and retain all the produce from lands, ask landlord for food and if he refused, take it by force, deprive jotedars of his firearms.

The important characteristics of Naxalbari peasant uprising in West Bengal were :

1. Mobilization to protect the interests of the peasant and the labourer classes and covering all ethnic (including tribes) and caste groups;
2. The means adopted were non-institutionalized and violence was encouraged;
3. Leadership was provided by communist party leaders;
4. It aimed at downward mobility of jotedars and upward mobility peasants and labourers. Sarvodya movement and Naxalbari movement was different than the former aimed at replacing individual ownership of land with communal ownership while the latter aimed at individual ownership.

The factors which had contributed to the failure of this movement were :

1. Its anti-national slant as manifested in the Chinese support for it,
2. Its vocal denunciation of the Indian national leadership and acceptance of Chinese leadership as source of its aspiration.
3. It’s declared intention to capture state power its open support to violence and factionalism among the leftists.
4. R.K. Mukherjee has analyzed this movement in terms of relationship between social structure and social change. He argues that although the declared intention of the movement was capturing state power, in reality, the revolt was not directed against the system but against its excesses. It was the exchange of goods between the peasant and the owner landlords that was sought to be properly regulated.

The so called ‘new farmer’s movements began in the 1970s in Punjab and Tamil Nadu. These movements were regionally organized, were non-party, and involved farmers rather than peasants (farmers are said to be market-involved as both commodity producers and purchasers). The basic ideology of the movement was strongly anti-state and anti-urban. The focus of demand was subsidy for agricultural inputs, taxation and non-repayment of loans. Novel methods of agitation were used for blocking of roads and railways, refusing politicians and bureaucrats entry to villages, and so on. It has been argued that the farmers’ movements have broadened their agenda and ideology and include environment and women’s issues. Therefore, they can be seen as a part of the worldwide ‘new social movements’.

Overall Nature of Peasant Movements :

1. That these movements originated only after independence and that these are purely social and cultural in nature;
2. Moore Junior (quoted by Ghanshyam Shah), writing about the peasant movements in India has not accepted the revolutionary potential of the Indian peasantry. According to him, Indian peasants are traditionally docile and passive because of which cultivation remained lackadaisical and inefficient during the Mughal and the British periods. Hence, there were no widespread peasant movements.
3. But Moore’s contention has been challenged by A.R.Desai, Kathleen Gough and D.N. Dhanagare. They argue that a number of peasant revolts have been overlooked by historians.
4. Gough has talked of 77 revolts in the last two centuries, the smallest of which engaged several thousand peasants in active support.
5. A.R. Desai has also observed that the Indian rural scene during the entire British period and thereafter had been bristling with protests, revolts and even large scale militant struggles involving hundreds of villages and lasting for years.
6. Ranjit Guha has said that agrarian disturbances of different forms and scales were endemic until the end of the nineteenth century. There were no fewer than 110 known revolts during117 years of the British rule.
7. Dhanagare has argued that Moore’s generalizations are questionable because there were various peasant resistance movements and revolts in India.

Classification of Peasant Movements

1. According to A.R. Desai and Ghanshyam Shah, peasant movements in India, have been classified on the basis of time period-into pre-British and post-independence. The post-independence period is classified into pre-Naxalite and post-Naxalite periods or pre and post-green revolution periods. The latter period is further divided into pre and post-Emergency periods.
2. A.R. Desai is also of the opinion that the nature of peasant movements varies according to the agrarian structures which have undergone changes during different periods. He has classified colonial India into ryotwari areas under British territory, zamindari areas under princely authority and tribal zones. The peasant struggles in these areas had different characteristics, raised different issues and involved different strata of the peasantry.
3. He further divides post- independence agrarian struggles into two categories: struggles launched by rich farmers and by poor farmers. The agrarian structure has thus not evolved a unified pattern throughout the country.

Kathleen Gough has classified peasant revolts on the basis of their goals, ideology and methods of organization into five types :

1. Restorative rebellions to drive out the Britishers and restore earlier rulers,
2. Religious movements,
3. Social banditry,
4. Terrorism for collective justice, and
5. Mass insurrections for the redress of particular grievances.

Labour Movement

Introduction

• Rise of Working Class:
  
  • The modern working class arose in India with the introduction of capitalism in the 19^th century under colonial dispensation.
    
    • It was a modern working class in the sense of relatively modern organisation of labour and a relatively free market for labour.
  • This development was due to the establishment of modern factories, railways, dockyards and construction activities relating to roads and buildings.
    
    • Plantations and railways were the initial enterprises to herald the era of colonial capitalism in Indian subcontinent.
• Industrialisation in India:
  
  • Port cities Bombay, Calcutta and Madras became the centres of the capitalist economy.
  • Cotton mills in Bombay, jute mills in Calcutta, and several factories in Madras were set up in the late 19^th century. Similar developments took place in the cities of Ahmedabad, Kanpur, Solapur and Nagpur.
  • The first jute mill of India was set up in Calcutta in 1854 by a Scottish entrepreneur.
  • The ownership of the cotton mills was with the Indian entrepreneurs, while that of jute was with the foreigners for a long time.

Workers’ Movement in Pre-Independence India

• Initial Attempts to Improve Workers’ Conditions: Attempts were made in 1870-1880 to better the working conditions of the workers by legislation.
  
  • Till the Swadeshi surge of 1903-08, there was no concerted effort to better the working conditions of the labour.
  • Again between 1915-1922, there was resurgence of workers’ movement along with the Home Rule Movement and the Non-Cooperation Movement.
  • The earlier attempts to improve the economic conditions of the workers were in the nature of philanthropic efforts which were isolated, sporadic and aimed at specific local grievances.
• Workers’ Movements before the Emergence of Trade Unions:
  
  • Plantation and Mine Workers: The plantation and mine workers were heavily exploited but their conditions did not attract much attention initially as they were away from the notice of early social reformers, journalists and public activists.
    
    • Despite this isolation, the plantation workers, on their own, registered their protests against the exploitation and oppression by the plantation owners and managers.
  • Industrial Workers: The cotton and jute industry workers were more in the public gaze.
    
    • The early social workers and philanthropists were also involved with them facilitating better organisational work as well as better reporting and public support.
  • Formation of Organisations:
    
    • In Bengal, Sasipada Banerjee founded the ‘Working Men’s Club’ in 1870 and started publishing a monthly journal in Bengali entitled ‘Bharat Shramjibi’ in 1874.
    • The Brahmo Samaj formed the ‘Working Men’s Mission’ in Bengal in 1878 to impart moral education among the workers.
      
      • It also established the ‘Working Men’s Institution’ in 1905.
    • In 1890 in Maharashtra, N.M. Lokhandey established the ‘Bombay Millhands’ Association’, and in 1898, he started publishing a journal entitled ‘Dinbandhu’ in Marathi.
      
      • The Bombay Millhands Defence Association formed by Bal Gangadhar Tilak in 1908.
    • However, these bodies were primarily interested in welfare activities and did not have much organisational base among the workers.

Emergence and Growth of Trade Unions:

• Cause of Emergence: The trade unions emerged in India after World War I. The main factors that led to the emergence of trade unions include:
  
  • Rising prices of essential commodities.
  • Decline in the real wages of workers.
  • Increase in the demand for the industrial products resulting in the expansion of Indian industries.
  • Gandhi’s call for the Non-Cooperation Movement.
  • The Russian Revolution.
• Formation of Trade Unions:
  
  • The Madras Labour Union, formed in April 1918, is generally considered to be the first trade union in India.
    
    • B.P. Wadia, a nationalist leader and an associate of Annie Besant, was instrumental for its organisation.
  • The Textile Labour Association, also known as Majur Mahajan Sangh, was established in Ahmedabad in 1920.
    
    • The union was formed following the agitation of mill workers of Ahmedabad demanding for a bonus to compensate for the rise in prices.
    • This union worked along Gandhian lines and became very strong over the years.

All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC):

• A New Edge to the Workers’ Movement: The most important development in the workers’ movement was the formation of All-India Trade Union Congress under the leadership of Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai.
  
  • Since then the working class movement became strong and by 1930 onwards, an ideological tone was added to the movement.
• Cause of Formation: Many people connected with labour realised that there was a need for a central organisation of labour to coordinate the works of the trade unions all over India.
  
  • The formation of the International Labour Organisation (ILO) in 1919 acted as a catalyst for it.
    
    • The members selected from AITUC represented the Indian Labour at the ILO.
• Leaders Involved: Bal Gangadhar Tilak, N.M.Joshi, B.P.Wadia, Diwan Chamanlall, Lala Lajpat Rai and Joseph Baptista were the main leaders behind the formation of AITUC.
  
  • Lala Lajpat Rai became the first president of the AITUC and Joseph Baptista its vice president.
  • Lajpat Rai was the first to link capitalism with imperialism: “imperialism and militarism are the twin children of capitalism”.
• Ideology of AITUC: In the beginning, the AITUC was influenced by social democratic ideas of the British Labour Party.
  
  • The Gandhian philosophy of non-violence, trusteeship and class-collaboration had great influence on AITUC.
• The Trade Union Act, 1926:
  
  • The act recognised trade unions as legal associations.
  • It laid down conditions for registration and regulation of trade union activities.
  • It secured civil and criminal immunity for trade unions from prosecution for legitimate activities, but also put some restrictions on their political activities.

Role of Communists:

• Emergence of Communists and CPI: The most important phenomenon in the field of labour movement in India was the emergence of the communists.
  
  • The communist ideology, deriving from the theories of Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin, assigns the working class the central place.
  • The Communist Party of India (CPI), formed in Soviet Union in 1920, soon after its formation, became active in the labour movements.
• Role in the Movements: The communists organised the workers in cotton mills of Bombay and jute mills of Calcutta, besides many other industries and led militant struggles.
• Role in Splitting the AITUC: By 1928-29, the communists gained a marginal majority in the AITUC.
  
  • Splitting the Moderates: In the tenth session of the AITUC held in Nagpur, the communists called for the dissociation from the ILO and association with the League against Imperialism.
    
    • The moderate and reformist group were against the idea and consequently left the AITUC and formed the Indian Federation of Trade Unions (IFTU).
  • Splitting the Nationalists: Another split occurred in 1931 due to divergence between the nationalist and communist opinions.
    
    • The communists severely criticised Gandhi and condemned the Round Table Conference of 1931 in which the Indian National Congress was participating.
    • Unable to secure a majority for this condemnation, the communists split from the nationalists and formed the Red Trade Union Congress (RTUC).
    • By 1931, there were three national federations of trade unions – the AITUC, the IFTU and the RTUC.
• Reunion of Trade Unions: It was felt by many trade union leaders that the division in their ranks was creating problems for their political and economic struggles.
  
  • As a result, the Railway Unions and some unaffiliated unions united with the IFTU to form the National Federation of Trade Unions (NFTU) in 1933.
    
    • Consequently, the RTUC, and the AITUC also united in 1935 and the name AITUC was retained for the unified organisation.

Workers’ Movement in Post-Independence India

• Formation of New Unions: The post-independence period saw the formation of a number of trade unions such as Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh (BMS) and Centre of Indian Trade Unions (CITU )
  
  • CITU was formed by Communist Party of India (Marxist), splitting from AITUC.
• Legislations Framed: The Industrial Dispute Act, 1947 and Labour Relations Bill and Trade Unions Bills, 1949 were introduced.
• Decline in Strikes: Between 1947-1960, the condition of the working class improved and there was a decline in the number of strikes.
• Economic Recession: The period of late 1960s saw decline in the wages of the working class; as a result, disputes in the industrial front increased.
• New Economic Policy, 1991: It introduced LPG (Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation).
  • Liberalisation deteriorated the bargaining position of the workers vis-a-vis capital.
  • The policy provided no statutory minimum wages for labour.
    • It gave the employers the complete right to hire and fire.

Weaknesses of the Movement

• Incomplete Coverage: A large section of the working class, the unorganised sector, was left outside the fold of trade unions.
  
  • The unions took the relatively easy path of pressing the demands of those who could be easily organised or whose demands were likely to be heard by the government.
• Multiplicity of Trade Unions: Post independence, the trade unions representing workers in the country have multiplied.
  
  • Multiplicity of unions in a capitalist system keeps the working class fragmented and vulnerable to all forms of pressures.
• Irresponsive Trade Unions: Trade unions in the country had not been responsive to the problems of the working class in the country.
  
  • Unions lay fragmented which produced bitter rivalry among them and hence very often they failed to respond to the issues of the working class.
• Disunity among the Workers: The industrial working class of the country did not ally with the peasants and other sections of the society in collective direct action on political issues’.
  
  • This reflected the lack of political consciousness among the working class.
• Negligence for Marginalised Sections: Trade unions in the organised sector overlooked the problems of women workers and workers belonging to the socially oppressed groups.

Dalit Movement

History attests to the prevalence of social divisions in  Indian society, such as caste, gender, class, etc. Such divisions have altered the entire Indian society. Whether Dalits, lower castes, or women, the exploited sections are being relentlessly pushed to the edge by the conventional Brahmanical oppressive framework. Dalits are people who have been exploited socially, economically, and politically for centuries.

Dalits cannot survive in human society; they have been residing outside the village, dependent on lesser levels of work and have lived as “untouchables.”

This exploitation results from discrimination based on Hindu society’s age-old caste hierarchical system. The main objective of the Dalit movement was to build an aura in the Indian society based on social equality. In sociological studies of the Dalit movement, the dominant trend sees Dalit protest as an unavoidable consequence of an ideologist Hindu tradition with thick prejudice towards Dalits. 

As a result, it is assumed that the movement is confined to advancing in economic, civic, and political spheres within the present order rather than revolutionising that society. This has hampered the understanding of the movement.

Who is a Dalit?

A group or groups of people that are suppressed, boycotted, broken, or exploited in social structures are termed as Dalits.

Dalits are the people who make up the last caste division according to the Varnasrama Theory. This is the traditional definition of Dalit, as provided by many historians. The Dalits are the individuals who fall beneath this category, according to the Indian Constitution’s Reserved castes.

Dalits (ex-untouchables), who the so-called upper castes have mercilessly oppressed, fall outside the Varnasrama doctrine and are labelled as outcasts in pre-independence India. India gained freedom, but the Dalits were refused to experience the right to live a normal, equally treated life. This concept of equality spawned the Dalit Movement in India as a fightback against the lengthy prevailing injustices committed against them. The Dalit movement is a battle to challenge the upper castes’ socio-cultural predominance.

However, the name Dalit would imply ‘not one of us.’ Only one caste exists, and it refers to the human being abused economically, politically, socially, and in other aspects of life by the country’s traditions.

Wrong Treatment of Dalits in the Society

The Dalits are deprived of all the basic resources in social, political life, and economics which opened a way for great oppression and degradation. The primary reason for the Dalit’s deteriorated status is the caste system that leads to the curse of untouchability, monopoly of resources, and monopoly of knowledge. Not only are Dalits extremely impoverished, but more than half of Dalits live below the poverty line, compared to less than 1/3rd of the population. 

Treatment of Dalit Women

While Dalit women face the same gender discrimination issues as their upper-caste colleagues, they also face different issues. Dalit women are the most affected, and they face three types of oppression: class, caste, and gender. In Today’s World, Dalit women suffer from extremely low literacy and education levels, high reliability on wage labor, discrimination in employment and salaries, a high concentration of unskilled, low-paid, and dangerous manual labor, violence, and sexual exploitation, and are victims of many sorts of superstitions. 

The very predicament of Dalit women may be traced back to the Vedic period. They must work as maids or bonded laborers, where they experience sexual harassment from upper caste males, or society would convert them into prostitutes.

DALIT MOVEMENT IN PRE-INDEPENDECE INDIA

Bhakti Movement

This movement in 15th century was a popular movement which treated all sections of society equally and it developed two traditions of Saguna and Nirguna. The first one believed in the form of God Vishnu or Shiv relating to the Vaishnavite or Shaivaite traditions. It advocated equality among all the castes though it subscribed to the Varnashram dharma and the caste social order. The followers of Nirguna believed in formless universal God. Ravidas and Kabir were the major figures of this tradition. It became more popular among the dalits in urban areas in the early 20th century as it provided the possibility of salvation for all. It promised social equality. Through these movements Fuller argues devotionalist ethic came to be widely reinterpreted as a charter of egalitarianism. No doubt the teachings of Bhakti movement inspired and motivated scheduled castes for the beginning of dalit movement. These pro-vided the means to protest against orthodox Hinduism for future generations of Dalits.

Neo-Vedantik Movements

These movements were initiated by Hindu religious and social reformers. These movements attempted to remove untouchability by taking the dalits into the fold of the caste system. According to the pioneers of these movements, untouchability was not an essential part of Hinduism and, for that matter, of the caste system. Dayanand Saraswati, the founder of the Arya Samaj, believed that the caste system was a political institution created by the rulers ‘for the common good of society, and not a natural or religious distinction’. He said, ‘in fact, any Brahman, who is disqualified for his work, becomes at once a Sudra de jure, and a Sudra, who qualifies for it, becomes at once a Brahmana de jure; though neither can become so de facto also either by his own will or the will of others, as long as the state does not make him so’ (Jordens 1978: 62).

The neo-Vedantic movements and non-Brahmin movements played an important catalytic role in developing anti-caste or anti Hinduism dalit movements in some parts of the country. The Satyashodhak Samaj and the self-respect movements in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, the Adhi Dharma and Adi Andhra movement in Bengal and Adi-Hindu movement in Uttar Pradesh are important antiuntouchability movements which were launched in the last quarter of the 19th and the early part of 20th century.

Nandini Gooptu (1993) in her study in Uttar Pradesh in the early twentieth century briefly analyses the emergence of the Adi-Hindu Movement in the urban areas of the region (2001). Like Adi-Dharma, the leaders of the Adi-Hindu movement believed that the present form of Hinduism was imposed on them by the Aryan invaders. The movement did not pose a direct threat to the caste system. It was ‘in essence, conceived as and remained a protest against the attribution of “low” roles and functions to the untouchables by means of a claim not to be Aryan Hindus; it was not developed into a full-blown, direct attack on the caste system’ (Gooptu 1993: 298).The Dalits began to call themselves Adi-Andhras in Andhra, Adi- Karnatakas in Karnataka, Adi-Dravidas in Tamil Nadu, Adi-Hindus in Uttar Pradesh and Adi-Dharmis in Punjab. Dalits also followed the route of conversion with a purpose of getting rid of untouchability and to develop their social and financial conditions.

Mahatma Jyotiba Phule formed the Sayta Shodak Mandal in 1873 with the aim of liberating non-Brahmins from the clutches of Brahminism. Shahu Maharaj of Kolhapur started Satya Shodak Mandal in 1912 and carried forward the movement started by Phule. In the pre-independence period, the Dalit movements comprised of a strong non-Brahman movement against Brahmanism in Maharashtra, Adi Dravidas movement in Tamil Nadu, Shri Narayan Dharma Paripalan movement in Kerala, Adi Andhras movement in Coastal Andhra and the like. Phule tried to formulate a new theistic religion.

Sanskritisation Movement

M.N. Srinivas (1955) defined Sanskritization as a process by which “a low or middle Hindu caste, or tribal or other group, changes its customs, ritual ideology, and way of life in the direction of a high and frequently twice-born caste.

Kumar (1991) writes that Dalit leaders followed the process of ’Sanskritization’ to elevate themselves to the higher position in caste hierarchy. They adopted Brahman manners, including vegetarianism, putting sandalwood paste on forehead, wearing sacred thread, etc. Thus Dalit leaders like Swami Thykkad (Kerala), Pandi Sunder Lai Sagar (UP), Muldas Vaishya (Gujarat), Moon Vithoba Raoji Pande (Maharashtra) and others tried to adopt established cultural norms and practices of the higher castes. Imitation of the high caste manners by Dalits was an assertion of their right to equality.

Some of the dalit leaders advocated that by following Brahmanic culture and manners like vegetarianism, putting sandalwood paste on the forehead, using sacred thread around the neck and accepting Brahmanic dialects, dress, manners, ceremonies and rituals will enable them to elevate their position in the society. Some of the dalits were attracted towards Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj and Mahanubhav Sect.

It was in the 1920s, however, that Dalits began to organize strongly and independently throughout many regions of India. The most important of the early Dalit movements were the Adi-Dharm movement in the Punjab (organized 1926); the movement under Ambedkar in Maharastra, mainly based among Mahars which had its organizational beginnings in 1924; the Namashudra movement in Bengal; the Adi-Dravida movement in Tamilnadu; the Adi-Karnataka movement; the AdiHindu movement mainly centered around Kanpur in U.P; and the organizing of the Pulayas and Cherumans in Kerala.

Kshîrasâgara (1994) writes that the phenomenon of Sanskritization had been Dalit Movements in India apparently explained long ago by Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar in his Castes in India (1916) by the term imitation in the context of formation of castes. He had categorically stated that almost all the castes in pre-caste society followed the priestly Brahmin class in their attempt to upgrade their social status by way of imitation of certain Brahmanic manners and customs and by differentiation from other groups. This process led to the formation of the castes. He says the laws of imitation flows from the higher to the lower. The extent of intensity of imitation varies inversely in proportion to social distance from the superior castes and source of imitation must enjoy prestige in the group.

Gandhi’s Contribution to Dalit Movement

When Mahatma Gandhi was in South Africa, he realized the problem of social discrimination. Gandhiji advocated that the construction of the life of the Nation was of utmost importance. This could be achieved by alleviating the social status of the untouchables. He always thought of untouchability as a cruel and inhuman institution. During his course of interaction with Harijan’s at Ahmedabad, he examined, “this is a movement for the purification of Hinduism”. According to Gandhiji, “If we are the children of the same God how can there be any rank among us”? He stressed the problem of untouchability and its removal from its roots. To boost up the work for the upliftment of Harijans, Gandhiji laid the foundation of the Harijan Sevak Sang in 1932 when he was in jail. This organisation was not a part of the Congress. It was the outcome of the fast Gandhiji undertook in 1932 in jail.

Ambedkar’s Contribution to Dalit Movement

Ambedkar started a Marathi fortnightly, the “Bahiskrit Bharat”, in April 1927 and a weekly, the “Janta” in November 1930. In September 1927 he started the “Samaj Samta Sang” for advocating social equality among the untouchables and the caste Hindus. He supported inter-caste dinner and inter-caste marriage. He also published another paper, the “Samata” in March 1929. In December 1927 he led a Satyagrah to establish the civic rights of the untouchables to draw water from a public tank, ‘Chavadar Talen’, at Mahad district Kolaba. Hindus claimed the tank as a private property and a prolonged litigation followed. Ambedkar won the case in the Bombay High Court in March 1937.

Ambedkar conducted another Satyagrah in March 1930 to establish the rights of the untouchables to enter the famous temple of Kalaram at Nasik. The Satyagrah was withdrawn in1934. From April 1942 to 1946, he spread his activities and formed the Scheduled Castes Federation’ as an all India political party. From 1942 to 1946 he was a member of the Governor General’s Executive Council and took advantage of this opportunity to promote the interest of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. He secured funds from the central Government for their education and reservation in posts in the central and provincial services for them.

DALIT LITERARY MOVEMENT

Dalit writings became an all India phenomenon. Dadawala (2016) writes that even prior to the 1960s, writers like Baburao Bagul, Bandhu Madhav, Shankarao Kharat, Narayan Surve, Anna Bhau Sathe were expressing Dalit concerns and issues in their literature. Baburao Bagul (1930–2008) is considered as a pioneer of Marathi Dalit writings in Marathi. His collection of short stories titled Jevha Mijat Chorali (When I Concealed My Caste) published in 1963 shook the traditional foundations of Marathi literature with its radical depiction of social exploitation. Subsequently, Namdeo Dhasal (who founded an organization called Dalit Panthers) further consolidated and expanded the Dalit literature movement in India.

Literateurs like Laxman Gaekwad, Laxman Pawar, Daya Pawar, Waman Nimbalkar, Tryambak Sapkale, Arun Dangle, Umakant Randhir, J. V. Pawar, Tarachandra Khandekar, Yogi Raj Waghmare, Avinash Dolas, Kishore Shantabai Kale, Narendra Jadhav, Yogendra Meshram, Bhimrao Shirvale etc. became prominent voices of Dalit writing in Marathi. Many of the Dalit writings have also been translated into English and published as part of the anthologies of Dalit writings.

POST-INDEPENDECE DALIT MOVEMENTS

B.R. Ambedkar and Buddhist Dalit Movement

Babasaheb Ambedkar has been the pioneering figure in the dalit movement. Ambedkar devoted and sacrificed every moment of his life thinking about and struggling for the emancipation of Dalits. Ambedkar became the nation’s first Law Minister on 15 August 1947. On 29 August 1947, he was appointed as Chairman of the Constitution Drafting Committee, charged by the Assembly to write India’s new Constitution. Ambedkar provided constitutional guarantees and protections for a wide range of civil liberties for individual citizens, including freedom of religion, the abolition of untouchability and the outlawing of all forms of discrimination. Ambedkar fought for extensive economic and social rights for women, and also won the Assembly’s support for introducing a system of reservations of jobs in the civil services, schools and colleges for members of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, a system akin to affirmative action. India’s lawmakers hoped to eradicate the socio- economic inequalities and lack of opportunities for India’s depressed classes through these measures.

Conversion to Buddhism

Ambedkar favoured Buddhist religion. He studied Buddhism all his life. In 1950, he turned his attention fully to Buddhism and travelled to Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) to attend a meeting of the World Fellowship of Buddhists. He advocated for conversion to Buddhism. Ambedkar twice visited Burma in 1954; the second time in order to attend the third conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists in Rangoon. In 1955, he formed the Bharatiya Bauddha Mahasabha. Ambedkar organised a formal public ceremony for himself and his supporters in Nagpur on 14 October 1956. Ambedkar completed his own conversion to Buddhism along with his wife. He then proceeded to convert some 500,000 of his supporters who were gathered around him. He then travelled to Kathmandu in Nepal to attend the Fourth World Buddhist Conference. Ambedkar was convinced that Buddhism possessed a moral doctrine with two major objectives to perform. Firstly, in the political domain, it would will be helpful for the dalits in creating a non-communal political ideology and identity against other existing perspectives of violent politics. During the Mahar Conference at Bombay Presidency in 1936, Ambedkar was convinced that conversion is the powerful weapon for Dalits to emancipate themselves. He realised that the “caste system among the Hindus has the foundation of religion”. And so long as the Dalits “remain Hindus, Dalits will have to struggle hard for social intercourse for food and water, and for intercaste marriages if they continue as Hindus. Ambedkar converted himself to Buddhism in 1956 in Nagpur. His able leadership could mobilize four lakh Dalits to convert themselves to Buddhism. In 1981, for example, responding to caste atrocities, more than 1,000 Dalits in Tamil Nadu converted to Islam. In 2002, in Jhajjar, Haryana, after five Dalits were lynched by a mob on the suspicion that they had killed a cow, the area saw mass conversions. In 2014, in Shivpuri, Madhya Pradesh, four Dalits angered by caste discrimination converted to Islam. Earlier this year, 180 Dalits converted to Buddhism in Uttar Pradesh to protest against the arrest of activists from the Bhim Army, a Dalit rights organisation.

Ambedkar was the chief architect for the foundation of the movement. He left the movement with a mission to fulfill its goal, even though leadership changes over time. Ambedkar chalked out a consolidated economic development plan without being influenced by the socialist approach of the radical Marxist thinking that he once found suitable to describe the depressed classes in India. Ambedkar was very concerned about the economics of the deprivation of oppressed classes in India. In State and Minorities Ambedkar laid down the strategy of India’s economic development without closing every avenue of private enterprise and also providing for the equal distribution of wealth. He advocated an economic framework aimed at providing protection to the vulnerable sections of society against economic exploitation (Jadhav, 1993).

According to the 2001 census, there are currently 7.95 million Buddhists in India, at least 5.83 million of whom are Buddhists in Maharashtra. This makes Buddhism the fifth-largest religion in India and 6% of the population of Maharashtra, but less than 1% of the overall population of India. The Buddhist revival remains concentrated in two states: Ambedkar’s native Maharashtra, and Uttar Pradesh — the land of Acharya Medharthi and their associates. Bhoj Dev Mudit, converted to Buddhism in 1968 and set up a school of his own. Rajendranath Aherwar appeared as an important Dalit leader in Kanpur. He joined the Republican Party of India and converted to Buddhism along with his whole family in 1961. In 1967, he founded the Kanpur branch of “Bharatiya Buddh Mahasabha”.

The Dalit Buddhist movement in Kanpur gained its momentum with the arrival of Dipankar, a Chamar bhikkhu, in 1980. Dipankar had come to Kanpur on a Buddhist mission and his first public appearance was scheduled at a mass conversion drive in 1981. The event was organised by Rahulan Ambawadekar,an RPI Dalit leader. In April 1981, Ambawadekar founded the Dalit Panthers (U.P. Branch) inspired by the Maharashtrian Dalit Panthers.

Dalit Panthers

The Dalit Panthers movement was a neo-social movement which accepted Ambedkar‘s philosophy to find a theoretical framework for the movement. Dalit Panthers was a social organisation that sought to fight caste discrimination. It was founded by Namdeo Dhasal and J. V. Pawar on 29 May 1972 in the Indian state of Maharashtra.

The Dalit Panthers were inspired by the Black Panther Party, a socialist movement that sought to fight racial discrimination against African-Americans, during the Civil Rights Movement in the United States, which occurred in the mid-20th century. The initiative to form the Dalit Panther Movement was taken up by Namdeo Dhasal, J. V. Pawar, and Arun Kamble in Bombay. The Dalit Panther movement was a radical departure from earlier Dalit movements owing to its initial emphasis on militancy and revolutionary attitudes.

Most members were young men, some of whom were Neo-Buddhists They advocated for and practised radical politics, fusing the ideologies of Ambedkar, Jyotirao Phule and Karl Marx. Crucially, the Dalit Panthers helped invigorate the use of the term Dalit to refer to lower-caste communities.

Kumar (2016) narrates that the Dalit Panther movement was a radical departure from earlier Dalit movements. Its initial thrust on militancy through the use of rustic arms and threats, gave the movement a revolutionary colour. Going by their manifesto, dalit panthers had broken new ground in terms of radicalising the political space for the dalit movement. They imparted the proletarian – radical class identity to dalits and linked their struggles to the struggles of all oppressed people over the globe. Marxism provided a scientific framework to bring about a revolutionary change. Although have-nots from both dalits and non-dalits craved for a fundamental change, the former adhered to what appeared to be Ambedkarian methods of socio-political change and the latter to what came to be the Marxian method which tended to see every social process as the reflection of the material reality.

Unfortunately, quite like the BPP, they lacked the suitable ideology to channel this anger for achieving their goal. Interestingly, as they reflected the positive aspects of the BPP’s contributions in terms of self-defence, mass organising techniques, propaganda techniques and radical orientation, they did so in the case of BPP’s negative aspects too. Like Black Panthers they also reflected ‘TV mentality’ (to think of a revolutionary struggle like a quick-paced TV programme), dogmatism, neglect of economic foundation needed for the organisation, lumpen tendencies, rhetoric outstripping capabilities, lack of clarity about the form of struggle and eventually, corruptibility of the leadership.

Contribution of Kanshi Ram

Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) is a popular national political party in the Indian state formed by Kanshi Ram in 1984 on the birth anniversary of Dr B.R Ambedkar to represents Bahujans (literally meaning “People in minority”). It refers to people from the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Castes (OBC), as well as religious minorities. The cadres are inspired by the philosophy of Gautam Buddha, B.R. Ambedkar, Mahatma Jyotiba Phule, Narayana Guru, Periyar E. V. Ramasamy and Chhatrapati Shahuji Maharaj. The primary focus of BSP on for the upliftment of downtrodden people, with the principal goal of “Social Transformation and Economic Emancipation” of the “Bahujan Samaj”. B.R Ambedkar, who was the champion of lower caste rights became the icon and ideological guru of BSP cadres. The political strategy of the party is to narrate the stories of Dalit heroes, build memorials and organize celebrations around their stories repeatedly to build a collective memory in the psyche of the people.

In 1973, Kanshi Ram established the Backward and Minority Communities Employee Federation (BAMCEF). The motto of the association is to “Educate-Organize and Agitate”.. Kanshi Ram continued building his network and making people aware of the realities of the caste system, how it functioned in India and the teachings of Ambedkar. In 1980 he organised a road show as “Ambedkar Mela” which reflected the life of Ambedkar and his views through pictures and narrations. In 1981 he founded the Dalit Soshit Samaj Sangharsh Samiti.

Mayawati’s Contribution to Dalit Movement

Mayawati Prabhu Das became the Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh for four seprated terms. She is the national president of the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP). She emphasized on a platform of social change to improve the lives of the weakest strata of Indian society — the Bahujans or Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Classes, and religious minorities. Mayawati’s goverment was branded as a “miracle of democracy” by P. V. Narasimha Rao, former Prime Minister of India. Mayawati during her tenure directed all the Commissioners and the District Magistrates to distribute 3 acre land pieces or pattas to weaker sections of society by launching a special drive for illegal possession of pattas be dispossessed of them and the eligible poor be identified by regular monitoring of pattas and strict action against the mafias and musclemen through spot verification of different development and public welfare programmes. In 2010, 5596 people belonging to the SC and ST communities were allotted 1054.879 hectares of agricultural land. In a special drive 74 FIRs were filed and 88 people were arrested for illegal occupation of agricultural land.

Under the leadership of Mayawati, the government has taken the following decisions (from March 2007 to May 2008) in the interest of weaker sections;- (1) Special drive for filling backlog of reservations (2) Provision of reservation to SC/ST in private sector(3). Computerisation for transparency in the distribution of SC/ST scholarships(4) Mahamaya housing scheme (5) Shri Kanshi Ram Shahri Gharib Awas Yojna for providing housing facility to urban poor (6) Construction of community halls for Dalits (7). Janani Suraksha Yojna under which the eligible pregnant women are provided a sum of Rs.1400/-. Dalit empowerment is Mayawati’s lasting contribution to the Indian polity. She has “given a sense of self-confidence to the community that even Ambedkar or Kanshi Ram could never give.”

Conclusion

Untouchability has been outlawed, but unfair practices have not. Today, wearing nice clothing is not banned, but getting a decent job is. Today, socially and politically based structures of the society, in the view of reform and social betterment, set up one group against the other, creating hostility and maintaining the sense of disapproval from the past. Education is the only way to overcome such prejudice. Thus, the social reform movement will only succeed if all the Dalits unite and fight for equal rights. However, they must realise that the caste, that is, mostly popped up in people’s minds, can never be eliminated. Therefore, here, the social transformation would tell us that the abolition of discrimination-based practices and the attainment of rights are both required for the uprisal of society’s majorly disadvantaged group, the Dalits.

Women’s Movement

Introduction: The women’s movement in India has been a vibrant and multifaceted struggle for gender equality and the rights of women. Spanning centuries, this movement has witnessed remarkable achievements and faced significant challenges.  

Historical Roots:

• The women’s movement in India can be traced back to the 19th century when social reform movements gained momentum. Influential leaders like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar championed women’s education and widow remarriage.
• The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the emergence of women leaders like Pandita Ramabai and Annie Besant who advocated for women’s rights.

Key Phases in the Women’s Movement:

1. Pre-Independence Era:

• Women actively participated in the struggle for India’s independence, with leaders like Sarojini Naidu and Kamala Nehru becoming prominent figures.
• The All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) was established in 1927 to address issues related to women’s education, health, and legal rights.

2. Post-Independence Period:

• The Constitution of India, adopted in 1950, enshrined gender equality and granted women the right to vote.
• The 1970s and 1980s marked a significant phase with the rise of feminist movements and organizations such as the National Commission for Women (NCW).

3. Landmark Legislation:

• Landmark legislations like the Dowry Prohibition Act (1961), the Equal Remuneration Act (1976), and the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (2005) were enacted to protect women’s rights.
• The Maternity Benefit Act (1961) and the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal) Act (2013) aimed at addressing women’s concerns.

4. Social Movements:

• Grassroots movements like the Chipko Movement in the 1970s, led by women in Uttarakhand, showcased the powerful role of women in environmental conservation.
• The Narmada Bachao Andolan, led by activist Medha Patkar, highlighted the impact of large-scale development projects on women and marginalized communities.

Influential Leaders:

• Influential women leaders in the women’s movement include Aruna Asaf Ali, Medha Patkar, and Brinda Karat, among many others.

Contemporary Challenges and Achievements:

• Despite significant progress, the women’s movement in India faces contemporary challenges, including issues of violence against women, gender-based discrimination, and unequal access to education and healthcare.
• The #MeToo movement, which gained momentum in India, brought issues of sexual harassment and assault to the forefront.

Conclusion: The women’s movement in India has been a force for empowerment, equality, and transformation. It has made significant strides in advancing women’s rights, legal protections, and social awareness. Women leaders and activists have been instrumental in shaping the movement’s trajectory. However, numerous challenges remain, and the movement continues to evolve to address the changing needs and concerns of Indian women. The women’s movement remains a vital catalyst for change, championing the cause of gender equality and women’s rights in India.

Environmental Movements

What is an Environmental Movement?

• An environmental movement can be defined as a social or political movement, for the conservation of the environment or for the improvement of the state of the environment. The terms ‘green movement’ or ‘conservation movement’ are alternatively used to denote the same.
• The environmental movements favour the sustainable management of natural resources. The movements often stress the protection of the environment via changes in public policy. Many movements are centred on ecology, health and human rights.
• Environmental movements range from the highly organized and formally institutionalized ones to the radically informal activities.
• The spatial scope of various environmental movements ranges from being local to almost global.

Major Environmental Movements in India

Some of the major environmental movements in India during the period 1700 to 2000 are the following.

1.Bishnoi Movement

What was it all about: Amrita Devi, a female villager could not bear to witness the destruction of both her faith and the village’s sacred trees. She hugged the trees and encouraged others to do the same. 363 Bishnoi villagers were killed in this movement.

The Bishnoi tree martyrs were influenced by the teachings of Guru Maharaj Jambaji, who founded the Bishnoi faith in 1485 and set forth principles forbidding harm to trees and animals. The king who came to know about these events rushed to the village and apologized, ordering the soldiers to cease logging operations. Soon afterwards, the maharajah designated the Bishnoi state as a protected area, forbidding harm to trees and animals. This legislation still exists today in the region.

2. Chipko Movement

• Year: 1973
• Place: In Chamoli district and later at Tehri-Garhwal district of Uttarakhand.
• Leaders: Sundarlal Bahuguna, Gaura Devi, Sudesha Devi, Bachni Devi, Chandi Prasad Bhatt, Govind Singh Rawat, Dhoom Singh Negi, Shamsher Singh Bisht and Ghanasyam Raturi.
• Aim: The main objective was to protect the trees on the Himalayan slopes from the axes of contractors of the forest.

What was it all about: Mr. Bahuguna enlightened the villagers by conveying the importance of trees in the environment which checks the erosion of soil, cause rains and provides pure air. The women of Advani village of Tehri-Garhwal tied the sacred thread around trunks of trees and they hugged the trees, hence it was called the ‘Chipko Movement’ or ‘hug the tree movement’.

The main demand of the people in these protests was that the benefits of the forests (especially the right to fodder) should go to local people. The Chipko movement gathered momentum in 1978 when the women faced police firings and other tortures.

The then state Chief Minister, Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna set up a committee to look into the matter, which eventually ruled in favour of the villagers. This became a turning point in the history of eco-development struggles in the region and around the world.

3. Save Silent Valley Movement

• Year: 1978
• Place: Silent Valley, an evergreen tropical forest in the Palakkad district of Kerala, India.
• Leaders: The Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP) an NGO, and the poet-activist Sughathakumari played an important role in the Silent Valley protests.
• Aim: In order to protect the Silent Valley, the moist evergreen forest from being destroyed by a hydroelectric project.

What was it all about: The Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB) proposed a hydroelectric dam across the Kunthipuzha River that runs through Silent Valley. In February 1973, the Planning Commission approved the project at a cost of about Rs 25 crores. Many feared that the project would submerge 8.3 sq km of untouched moist evergreen forest. Several NGOs strongly opposed the project and urged the government to abandon it.

In January 1981, bowing to unrelenting public pressure, Indira Gandhi declared that Silent Valley will be protected. In June 1983 the Center re-examined the issue through a commission chaired by Prof. M.G.K. Menon. In November 1983 the Silent Valley Hydroelectric Project was called off. In 1985, Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi formally inaugurated the Silent Valley National Park.

4. Jungle Bachao Andholan

5. Appiko Movement

• Year: 1983
• Place: Uttara Kannada and Shimoga districts  of Karnataka State
• Leaders: Appiko’s greatest strengths lie in it being neither driven by a personality nor having been formally institutionalised. However, it does have a facilitator in Pandurang Hegde. He helped launch the movement in 1983.
• Aim: Against the felling and commercialization of natural forest and the ruin of ancient livelihood.

What was it all about: It can be said that the Appiko movement is the southern version of the Chipko movement. The Appiko Movement was locally known as “Appiko Chaluvali”. The locals embraced the trees which were to be cut by contractors of the forest department. The Appiko movement used various techniques to raise awareness such as foot marches in the interior forest, slide shows, folk dances, street plays etc.

The second area of the movement’s work was to promote afforestation on denuded lands. The movement later focused on the rational use of the ecosphere by introducing alternative energy resource to reduce pressure on the forest. The movement became a success. The current status of the project is – stopped.

6. Narmada Bachao Andholan (NBA)

• Year: 1985
• Place: Narmada River, which flows through the states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.
• Leaders: Medha Patker, Baba Amte, Adivasis, farmers, environmentalists and human rights activists.
• Aim: A social movement against a number of large dams being built across the Narmada River.

What was it all about: The movement first started as a protest for not providing proper rehabilitation and resettlement for the people who have been displaced by the construction of the Sardar Sarovar Dam. Later on, the movement turned its focus on the preservation of the environment and the eco-systems of the valley. Activists also demanded the height of the dam to be reduced to 88 m from the proposed height of 130m. World Bank withdrew from the project.

The environmental issue was taken into court. In October 2000, the Supreme Court gave a judgment approving the construction of the Sardar Sarovar Dam with a condition that the height of the dam could be raised to 90 m. This height is much higher than the 88 m which anti-dam activists demanded, but it is definitely lower than the proposed height of 130 m. The project is now largely financed by the state governments and market borrowings. The project is expected to be fully com­pleted by 2025.

Although not successful, as the dam could not be prevented, the NBA has created an anti-big dam opinion in India and outside. It questioned the paradigm of development. As a democratic movement, it followed the Gandhian way 100 per cent.

7. Tehri Dam Conflict

• Year: 1990’s
• Place: Bhagirathi River near Tehri in Uttarakhand.
• Leaders: Sundarlal Bahuguna
• Aim: The protest was against the displacement of town inhabitants and the environmental consequence of the weak ecosystem.

Tehri dam attracted national attention in the 1980s and the 1990s.  The major objections include seismic sensitivity of the region, submergence of forest areas along with Tehri town etc. Despite the support from other prominent leaders like Sunderlal Bahuguna, the movement has failed to gather enough popular support at the national as well as international levels.